Rui Baptista et al., Ten Years of Entrepreneurship Education Literature: An Examination of Theoretical Contributions (2012), available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2109932.

Denise E. Dollimore, The Origin of Organizational Routines: Dispositions of Founding Entrepreneurs (2016), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2711014.

Abstract (from author): Using an evolutionary approach that conceives of habits and routines as social replicators and their transmission and transformation explained through the mechanisms of variation, selection and retention, this longitudinal study explains the origin of organizational routines by investigating the habits and dispositions of founding entrepreneurs. Findings show that historic and acquired habits play a significant role in shaping routines in fledgling organizations. Founders vary markedly in their capacity to change habits of thought and negotiate new routines. Consistent with recent research in psychology on cognitive interventions, the more successful entrepreneurs were those most aware of and prepared to change their mind-set. Implications for policy makers suggest timely well-targeted entrepreneurship training on cognitive maps and the mind of the strategist. These findings shed new light on the origins question and contribute to the development of an evolutionary framework for management and organization studies.

Wilfred Dolfsma & Francis de Lanoy, Outside vs. Inside Entrepreneurs: When Institutions Bind and Favors Blind, 50 J. Econ. Issues 382 (2016).

Abstract (from authors): In some societies, entrepreneurs coming from outside of a community (i.e., outside entrepreneurs) are more active than entrepreneurs from within the community (i.e., inside entrepreneurs). Institutions and relationships that entrepreneurs entertain may hamper insiders from starting or succeeding. Institutional economics and anthropology suggest that, rather than outside entrepreneurs having more resources, the case may be that inside entrepreneurs could be hampered by existing institutions that blind and social relations that bind. Outsiders, however, may be less inclined to generate societal value in a community.

John Joseph Donovan Jr., The Entrepreneur’s Challenge (2015), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2650487.

Abstract (adapted from author): The strengths and limitations of incumbent firms define the opportunities for the entrepreneur. The daunting news for the entrepreneur is that incumbent firms have formidable competitive advantages; the encouraging news is that the very forces that create those competitive advantages often act as impediments to incumbent firms' innovations. The customer is the ultimate judge as to whether an organization and its products and services will succeed or fail. These dual factors of competitive advantages and impediments to innovate must be analyzed within the backdrop of the market place made up of customers and their changing needs.

The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between an entrepreneur's innovation and its alignment with current customer needs. Where an entrepreneur may enter a market and how close his entry can be aligned to current customer needs and demands are functions of the incumbent firms' abilities to innovate. This approach is based on the notion that the innovation impediments of the incumbents are often the opportunities for the entrepreneur, and the competitive advantages of the incumbent are the impediments for the entrepreneur. The author will develop a conceptual model that relates the dual advantages and disadvantages of incumbent firms with customer alignment. This in turn should give insight into where it is fruitful and safe for an entrepreneur to enter.

Charles E. Eesley & Yanbo Wang, The Effects of Mentoring in Entrepreneurial Career Choice (B.U. School of Mgmt. Research Paper No. 2387329, 2014),available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2387329.

Abstract (by authors): Mentorship programs are increasingly on the agenda for policymakers and universities interested in fostering entrepreneurship. However, there are few studies examining the causal effects of mentorship on potential entrepreneurs. The authors investigate the impact of the type of mentorship on the likelihood that university students will become entrepreneurs. They test whether being mentored by an entrepreneur has a different impact in entrepreneurship education compared with mentoring from a non-entrepreneur with relevant industry experience. The authors use a longitudinal field experiment with a pre-test/post-test design where students in an entrepreneurship class were randomly assigned to receive mentorship from either entrepreneur or non-entrepreneur mentors. To their knowledge, this is the first randomized trial of a mentoring program in entrepreneurship. The authors find significant positive effects of mentorship, particularly by certain types of mentors. However, the effects are not uniform among the group of participating students. Results show that entrepreneur mentors have a significant positive influence on the rate of entrepreneurship, with the greatest influence on students with specific risk orientation and family backgrounds.

Charles E. Eesley, David H. Hsu & Edward B. Roberts, Entrepreneurial Ideation and Organizational Performance: Imprinting Effects (2014), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2375052.

Abstract (by authors): How does the relationship between the organizational context for venture idea formation and venture performance depend on the venture’s founding team and business environment? Using data from a survey of 2,067 firms, the authors show that venture ideas emerging from research lab contexts are imprinted in a way that is better aligned with a cooperative commercialization environment. Ideas from industry contexts are aligned with a competitive commercialization environment. The authors contribute to prior work by showing that imprinting can come both from how a venture idea interacts with the business environment and how those ideas interact with the type of founder.

Saul Estrin et al., For Benevolence and for Self-Interest: Social and Commercial Entrepreneurial Activity Across Nations (IZA Discussion Paper No. 5770, 2011),available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1867039.

Abstract (adapted from authors): The authors conceptualize social entrepreneurship as a source of social capital which, when present in the environment, enhances commercial entrepreneurship. They also argue that social entrepreneurship should be recognized as a second form of Baumol's (1990) productive entrepreneurship and that it will therefore compete at the individual level for resources with commercial entrepreneurship. Unlike institutional void theory, the authors see social entrepreneurship as conditional on institutional quality, but consistent with the institutional void perspective the authors see it as filling the gaps where government activism is lower. These arguments motivate the hypotheses that the paper tests and largely confirms applying multilevel modelling. This analysis is based on population-representative samples in 47 countries (the 2009 GEM dataset).

Robert W. Fairlie, Kauffman Index of Entrepreneurial Activity 1996-2010(University of California Institute for the Study of Labor, 2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1780284.

Abstract (from author): The Kauffman Index of Entrepreneurial Activity is a leading indicator of new business creation in the United States. Capturing new business owners in their first month of significant business activity, this measure provides the earliest documentation of new business development across the country. The percentage of the adult, non-business-owner population that starts a business each month is measured using data from the Current Population Survey (CPS). In addition to this overall rate of entrepreneurial activity, separate estimates for specific demographic groups, states, and select metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) are presented. The Index provides the only national measure of business creation by specific demographic groups. New 2010 data allow for an update to previous reports, with consideration of trends in the rates of entrepreneurial activity over the fifteen-year period between 1996 and 2010. The Kauffman Index reveals important shifts in the national level of entrepreneurial activity, and shifts in the demographic and geographic composition of new entrepreneurs across the country.

Jahangir Yadollahi Farsi et al., Entrepreneurial University Conceptualization: Case of Developing Countries, 4 Global Bus. & Mgmt. Res. 193 (2012), also available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2057775.

Abstract (from authors): Purpose: The main purpose of the present paper is to elaborate an entrepreneurial university conceptualization which could be appropriate for developing countries. A conceptualization which distinguishes between different elements of entrepreneurial universities in developing countries, and identifies the common ones. This conceptualization considers the indigenous aspects and the contextual factors. Design/methodology/approach: The authors used a qualitative approach to investigate the concept, more deeply, in developing countries. In order to do so, a series of semi structured in-depth interviews were conducted with ten experts in this domain. Coding of qualitative data - both interviews and documents - was used to identify new dimensions, elements, and variables. The experts were chosen from knowledgeable individuals in this domain in the universities, including university officials, professors, and officials of the Science and Technology Parks. It should be noted that non-probability sampling technique, i.e. judgmental sampling were used to find the knowledgeable experts of this field of study. Findings: This study presents a conceptualization for entrepreneurial universities in the developing countries. The findings reveal that there are four main elements in the proposed entrepreneurial university conceptualization, which are as follows: resources, capabilities, mission, and impeding elements. Practical implications: The results of the present study could be used for policy making in the higher education sector of developing countries. Also, the results might be compared with the other conceptualizations in different contexts.

Cornelia Butler Flora & Jan L. Flora, Entrepreneurial Social Infrastructure: A Necessary Ingredient, 529 Annals Am. Acad. Pol & Soc. Sci. 48 (1993).

Julian S. Frankish et al., Is Entrepreneurship a Route Out of Deprivation? (2013), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2284139.

Abstract (by authors): This paper investigates whether entrepreneurship constitutes a route out of deprivation for those living in deprived areas. This paper is a measure of income/wealth is based on analysis of improvements in an individual’s residential address. Our data consist of information on over 800,000 individuals, and come from the customer records of a major UK bank. Comparing business owners to non-owners, results suggest that the benefits of business ownership are found across the wealth distribution. Hence entrepreneurship can be a route out of deprivation.

Oded Galor & Stelios Michalopoulos, Evolution and the Growth Process: Natural Selection of Entrepreneurial Traits (Institute for the Study of Labor Discussion Paper No. 6327, (2012), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2003660.

Abstract (from authors): This research suggests that a Darwinian evolution of entrepreneurial spirit played a significant role in the process of economic development and the dynamics of inequality within and across societies. The study argues that entrepreneurial spirit evolved non-monotonically in the course of human history. In early stages of development, risk-tolerant, growth promoting traits generated an evolutionary advantage and their increased representation accelerated the pace of technological progress and the process of economic development. In mature stages of development, however, risk-averse traits gained an evolutionary advantage, diminishing the growth potential of advanced economies and contributing to convergence in economic growth across countries.

Luis Armando Garcia, Teaching Private Equity Investment in Higher Education: An Entrepreneurship Approach (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1944809.

Abstract (from author): A determining factor in entrepreneurship is the level of education of the entrepreneur. Universities and institutions of higher learning are called to design courses and support to potential entrepreneurs. European universities taking part in the European Higher ducation Area (EHEA) should exploit the potential business network that students have at their reach inside the EU area. Entrepreneurship education warrants an improvement of financial literacy, for studies have shown that in many developed nations consumers are poorly informed about financial products and practices. Venture Capitalists consider universities as sources of truly exceptional innovations and inventions, which can develop into successful companies within a short period of time. The Private Equity Investment industry has acquired enormous popularity as an alternative investment asset class over the past two decades. Its backers claim that its extensive economic benefits come from a model that aligns the interest of both owners and management. Perhaps it has never been easier than right now for companies and start-ups to locate, contact and engage potential sources of Private Equity Investment and/or Venture Capital Funds. Entrepreneurship and financial Literacy should be taught openly in Business Schools around the world. The entrepreneurship industry is ready to join forces with academics and students in order to confront the unharmonious aspects of the current curriculum of entrepreneurship education.

William B. Gartner, A Conceptual Framework for Describing the Phenomenon of New Venture Creation, 10 Acad. Mgmt. Rev. 696-706 (1985).

Abstract (from author): A review of the entrepreneurship literature suggests that differences among entrepreneurs and among their ventures are as great as the variation between entrepreneurs and nonentrepreneurs and between new firms and established firms. A framework for describing new venture creation integrates four major perspectives in entrepreneurship: characteristics of the individual(s) who start the venture, the organization which they create, the environment surrounding the new venture, and the process by which the new venture is started.

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David A. Garvin, A Note on Corporate Venturing and New Business Creation,Harv. Bus. Rev. (December 17, 2002).

Abstract (from author):  Presents an introduction and overview of corporate venturing. Describes the need for companies to create new businesses, the stages in the process, predictable problems and challenges, the strengths and weaknesses of alternative approaches such as internal venture divisions and corporate venture capital funds, and guidelines for successful practice.

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G. Geldhof et al., Understanding Entrepreneurial Intent in Late Adolescence: The Role of Intentional Self-Regulation and Innovation, 43 J. Youth & Adolescence 81 (2014).

Abstract (adapted from authors): Entrepreneurship represents a form of adaptive developmental regulation through which both entrepreneurs and their ecologies benefit. This article describes entrepreneurship from the perspective of relational developmental systems theory, and examines the joint role of personal attributes, contextual attributes, and characteristics of person-context relationships in predicting entrepreneurial intent in a sample 3,461 college students enrolled in colleges and universities in the United States (60 % female; 61 % European American). Specifically, the authors tested whether personal characteristics (i.e., gender, intentional self-regulation skills, innovation orientation) and contextual factors (i.e., entrepreneurial parents) predicted college students’ intentions to pursue an entrepreneurial career. The article’s findings suggest that self-regulation, innovation orientation, and having entrepreneurial role models (i.e., parents) predict entrepreneurial intent. Limitations and future directions for the study of youth entrepreneurship are discussed.

Gerald George & Adam J. Block, The Business Model in Practice and its Implications for Entrepreneurship Research, 35 Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 83 (2011).

Abstract: While the term "business model" has gained widespread use in the practice community, the academic literature on this topic is fragmented and confounded by inconsistent definitions and construct boundaries. In this study, the authors review prior research and reframe the business model with an entrepreneurial lens. They report on a discourse analysis of 151 surveys of practicing managers to better understand their conceptualization of a business model. They find that the underlying dimensions of the business model are resource structure, transactive structure, and value structure, and discuss the nature and implications of dimensional dominance for firm characteristics and behavior. These findings provide new directions for theory development and empirical studies in entrepreneurship by linking the business model to entrepreneurial cognition, opportunity co-creation, and organizational outcomes.

Gerard George et al., Optimism, Vulnerability, and Entrepreneurial Intent: Occupation Change Intentions in Rural East Africa (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1974060.

Abstract (adapted from authors): The authors examine how income seeking attitude, economic and occupational vulnerability jointly influence individual intentions to switch into entrepreneurship under desperate poverty. They posit that vulnerability negatively moderates the relationship between optimism and entrepreneurial intention. The authors find support for their predictions in a sample of 673 individuals from two sub-locations in rural Kenya. The study design enables us to compare intention to change occupation into entrepreneurship against changing into other occupations. The authors find that intention to change into entrepreneurship has a distinctly different causal process. They discuss implications of their findings entrepreneurship under conditions of desperate poverty and the theory of planned behavior.

Navid Ghannad & Svante Andersson, The Influence of the Entrepreneur's Background on the Behaviour and Development of Born Globals' Internationalisation Processes, 15 Int'l J. Entrepren. & Small Bus.136 (2012).

Abstract (adapted from journal): While much of the research on small firm internationalisation has concentrated on export strategies, little attention has been paid to understanding the process and conditions under which the entrepreneur identifies and exploits an opportunity. The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between the entrepreneur's prior life story and the development and behaviour of his or her born global firm. Six years of intense qualitative field research, including 108 interviews from three entrepreneurial 'born global' firms are compared and contrasted within the paper’s theoretical framework. In this study empirical evidence suggests that a person's childhood and prior life story directly influences the behaviour of the entrepreneur. The authors propose that different types of entrepreneurs are important factors to understand firms' different internationalisation patterns. Depending on the backgrounds of the entrepreneurs, they developed preferences, skills, and especially desires that will affect the total behaviour of their future organisations.

Nitu Bose Ghosh & Geetha Rajaram, Developing Emotional Intelligence for Entrepreneurs: The Role of Entrepreneurship Development Programs, 22 S. Asian J. Mgmt. 85 (2015).

Abstract (adapted from authors): Extant research has shown that as much as 75 % of business success is driven by Emotional Intelligence (El). El is considered as a crucial personal ability that is required to be successful in today's chaotic business environment, and is critically significant for entrepreneurs. EI has a crucial role to play in performance enhancement, stress reduction, improving strategic leadership capabilities and harnessing creativity. It has been found to influence various critical entrepreneurial dimensions like initiation, innovation, decision-making, risk-taking, motivation and resilience. This study examines the relationship between El and key entrepreneurial dimensions through empirical analysis and also attempts to find out the role of Entrepreneurship Development Programs (EDPs) on the development of El of entrepreneurs. The study attempts to find out whether El development should be one of the components of training for budding entrepreneurs.

Denis A. Grégoire et al., The Cognitive Perspective in Entrepreneurship: An Agenda for Future Research, 48 J. Mgmt. Stud. 1443 (2011), also available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1895187.

Abstract (adapted from authors): Despite its many achievements, scholarship at the intersection of entrepreneurship and cognition has focused primarily on the consequences of what happens when an entrepreneur benefits from various cognitive characteristics, resources, or other dispositions. As such, cognitive research in entrepreneurship continues to suffer from narrow theoretical articulations and weak conceptual foundations that lessen its contribution to the managerial sciences. To address these issues, the authors draw from extant work on the nature and practice of cognitive research to develop a systematic approach to study entrepreneurship cognition. To further articulate this agenda, they assess the state of the field by content-analysing entrepreneurship cognition articles published between 1976 and 2008. The authors find that, although it has investigated many relevant variables, research on entrepreneurship cognition has failed to fully articulate key conceptual features of the cognitive perspective. Building on these observations, the authors propose concrete strategies and research questions to augment the contribution of entrepreneurship cognition research, and advance this research beyond its current focus on ‘cognitive consequences’. In particular, the paper illustrates the scholarly potential of disentangling the various antecedents of entrepreneurship cognition, of studying the process interactions between cognitive resources and mental representations, and of exploring the operation of entrepreneurship cognition across levels of analysis.

Kevin S. Groves et al., Examining Entrepreneurial Cognition: An Occupational Analysis of Balanced Linear and Nonlinear Thinking and Entrepreneurship Success, 49 J. Small Bus. Mgmt. 438 (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1872271.

Abstract (from authors): This empirical study advances entrepreneurial cognition research by examining whether entrepreneurs possess a high nonlinear (e.g., intuitive, creative, emotional) thinking style, as some studies and a common stereotype of entrepreneurs would suggest, or whether they possess a more versatile balance in both nonlinear and linear (e.g., analytic, rational, logical) thinking styles. As predicted, 39 entrepreneurs demonstrated greater balance in linear and nonlinear thinking styles than their professional actor (n=33), accountant (n=31), and frontline manager (n=77) counterparts, though they did not significantly differ in thinking style balance from senior executives (n=39). Unexpectedly, educational background was associated with thinking style balance, suggesting that years of formal education may contribute to one's versatility in utilizing both linear and nonlinear thinking styles. For the entrepreneur sample, linear and nonlinear thinking styles balance predicted years in current business after controlling for industry, number of employees, and demographic variables. Implications for future entrepreneurial cognition research and entrepreneurship education are discussed.

Frank R. Gunter, A Simple Model of Entrepreneurship for Principles of Economics Courses (2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1961235.

Abstract (from author): Over the last four decades since Baumol’s 1968 critique, there has been some progress in incorporating entrepreneurship into principles of economics texts. However, the critical roles of entrepreneurs in creating, operating, and destroying markets are generally either absent or relegated to later chapters. The primary difficulties in explaining entrepreneurship at the principles level are the lack of a universally accepted definition, a plausible explanation of the demand for entrepreneurship, and a diagram that summarizes the impact of entrepreneurship on market equilibrium – a definition, a story, and a picture. This paper discusses how the notion of the stationary state associated with Schumpeter (1911), Knight (1921), and Weber (1930) can provide a framework for integrating the entrepreneur into the early part of principles of economics courses. In addition, the research of Romer (1990), Audretsch et al (2006), and others is used to demonstrate the critical role of entrepreneurship in explaining economic growth.

Antonia Rosa Gurrieri, Networking Entrepreneurs, 47 J. Socio-Econ. 193 (2013).

Abstract (adapted from authors): In a cluster and in a network the figure of the entrepreneurs appear as an apparatus of social relations and cooperation. The authors believe that entrepreneurial networks are key elements for a cultural quality system, but recent literature tends to not consider the social flow (internal) of spillovers produced by these (entrepreneurial) networks. The purpose of this paper is to stress the role of entrepreneurs through a conceptual map that relies upon strategic entrepreneurial networks. The authors seek to fill a theoretical gap in entrepreneurial literature, and make the figure and role of entrepreneurial networking teams emerge with a strategic role for creating opportunities and new social knowledge. From this interpretation appears what is still unexpressed or not well explicated in literature: the entrepreneurial team and its natural attitude in producing social knowledge.

Anahita Bagherzad Halimi et al., Entrepreneur Women in Iran: A Review of Challenges and Approaches to Remove the Barriers of Women Entrepreneurship in Iran (International Conference on Economics Business and Marketing Management, EBMM, 2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2009246.

Abstract (from authors): Women’s entrepreneurship should be considered as a great potential that highly contributes to the social and economical growth and developments of a country. Studies have identified a number of barriers that prevent women from realizing their different potential capabilities and talents that enables them to present themselves as entrepreneurs. This study provides a review of the barriers to Women’s entrepreneurship in Iran and recommends some approaches that can help women and other members of the society to remove these obstacles and tries to motivate the society to provide new facilities and opportunities for women in order to take advantage of women potentials and improve the country. Based on this study, these barriers are different in every society and this distinction is all based on social, cultural, individual and economical differences in each country, therefore, it is not only the government responsibility to provide equal opportunities for both genders but also every person should participate in developing the country by at least not ignoring the talents and abilities of women as half of the body of the society.

Philippa Hall, Labor Subjectivities for the New World of Work: A Critique of Government Policy on the Integration of Entrepreneurialism in the University Curriculum, 13 J. Critical Educ. Pol’y Stud. 113 (2015).

Abstract (from author): International debates on the aims and purposes of entrepreneurship education in the university are examined in this paper through the prism of a policy critique of English higher education initiatives. The Department of Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) policy to integrate rather than 'add on' enterprise education throughout university courses has been widely implemented. In contrast to the debates about enterprise policy by authors in social psychology, business studies, secondary school education and entrepreneurship, which question the claims of enterprise rhetoric and examine the practicalities of forming start-up companies, the policy to integrate entrepreneurship into the curriculum has remained largely uncontested in UK universities. It is argued that the policy to integrate enterprise into the humanities and social sciences produces three critical gaps; a limited scope for social theory, ahistorical analysis and the absence of demand-side economics. This critique of BIS policy is set within the wider context of the neo-liberal reconfiguration of the institutional relations between the university, the state and the market that is taking place in the UK and on an international scale.

Barton H. Hamilton, Nicholas W. Papageorge & Nidhi  Pande, The Right Stuff? Personality and Entrepreneurship (2014), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2438944.

Abstract (adapted from authors): A puzzling feature of entrepreneurship is that many individuals are self-employed even though they would earn more in paid employment. To shed light on this puzzle, the authors examine the role of personality traits in determining entrepreneurial decisions and earnings. They estimate a model in which agents maximize expected utility by choosing between self and paid employment and they allow personality traits to affect earnings in each sector along with underlying preferences over sectors.

 The authors find that the personality traits that make entrepreneurship profitable are not always the same personality traits that drive people to open their own business. This means that, in terms of personality traits, individuals who would be the highest earning entrepreneurs are not always the individuals who choose to be entrepreneurs. They go on to use the estimated model to assess various policies designed to encourage entrepreneurship. In general, the authors find that these policies either subsidize businesses that would have been started without a subsidy or that they attract individuals with personality traits associated with preferences for entrepreneurship, but who have low-quality business ideas.

Matthijs H. M. Hammer, How to Reduce Entrepreneurial Failure in the Post Start-Up Phase (The 18th Annual High Technology Small Firms Conference, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands, 2010), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2004206.

Abstract (from author): The field of entrepreneurial start-ups is broadly studied by scholars. To increase the amount of successful entrepreneurs, the stimulation for more starting entrepreneurs is a referenced field of research and subject to governmental stimulation. More entrepreneurs lead to a bigger gross national product, which has a positive impact on an economic region. More new entrepreneurs do not mean more successful entrepreneurs. According to prior research, in half of the cases of entrepreneurial exit, the exit was more or less avoidable. Beside the stimulation of more people to become an entrepreneur the reduction of the entrepreneurial failure in the post start-up phase of a venture is worth considering in order to get more successful entrepreneurs. This PhD proposal wants to shed light on that phase of the entrepreneurial process and want to identify effective interventions to prevent entrepreneurial failure.

Michelle M. Harner, Mitigating Financial Risk for Small Business Entrepreneurs, 6 Ohio St. Entrepren. Bus. L.J. 469 (2011).

Abstract (from author): Financial distress by definition threatens a company's viability. Entrepreneurial and start-up entities are particularly vulnerable to this threat. Yet, much of the discussion following the recent recession focuses almost exclusively on financial institutions and “too-big-to-fail” entities. This essay re-examines lessons gleaned from the recession in the context of smaller, entrepreneurial entities. Specifically, it analyzes how small business entrepreneurs might invoke principles of enterprise risk management to mitigate the long-term impact of financial distress on their business models. It also considers related refinements to extant small business regulations, including the U.S. bankruptcy laws. The essay's primary objective is to help policymakers, entrepreneurs and investors rethink financial distress and recognize opportunities for “successful failures.”

Joop Hartog et al., If You are So Smart, Why Aren’t You an Entrepreneur? Returns to Cognative and Social Ability: Entrepreneurs Versus Employees, 19 J. Econ. & Mgmt. Strategy 947 (2010).

Abstract (adapted from author): How valuable are cognitive and social abilities for entrepreneurs relative to employee’s earnings? The authors answer three questions: (1) To what extent does a composite measure of ability affect an entrepreneur's earnings relative to wages earned by employees? (2) Do different cognitive abilities (e.g., math ability, language, or verbal ability) and social ability affect earnings of entrepreneurs and employees differently?, and (3) Does the balance in these measured ability levels affect an individual's earnings? The authors’ (difference-of-difference) estimates of the returns to ability for spells in entrepreneurship versus wage employment account for selectivity into entrepreneurial positions insofar as they are determined by fixed individual characteristics. The robust results provide the following answers to the three questions: General ability has a stronger impact on entrepreneurial incomes than on wages. Moreover, entrepreneurs and employees benefit from different sets of specific abilities: verbal and clerical abilities have a stronger impact on wages, whereas mathematical, social, and technical ability are more valuable for entrepreneurs. The balance in the various kinds of ability also generates a higher income, but only for entrepreneurs: This finding supports Lazear's Jack-of-all-Trades theory.

Mario Hayek, Control Beliefs and Positive Psychological Capital: Can Nascent Entrepreneurs Discriminate Between What Can and Cannot be Controlled?, 12 J. Mgmt. Res. 3 (2012).

Abstract (from author): Entrepreneurs have been portrayed in a positive light as being dreamers, opportunity seekers, resilient, optimistic, and self- confident. The search for understanding the lens through which nascent entrepreneurs approach or perceive opportunities is a cornerstone of entrepreneurship research carrying significant practical implications. An important step in understanding how nascent entrepreneurs perceive opportunities is by understanding their perception of control over their environment. While the constructs that form the psychological capital construct, hope, resilience, optimism, and self-efficacy are all revered characteristics and highly associated with entrepreneurs, the consequences of these being applied to situations where the individual actually has a misplaced sense of control may have dire consequences.

Michael Haynie, A Measure of Adaptive Cognition for Entrepreneurship Research, 33(3) Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 695 (May 1, 2009).

Abstract (from publisher):  To sense and adapt to uncertainty may characterize a critical entrepreneurial resource. In this research, the researchers employ a metacognitive lens toward the development of a 36-item inventory designed to assess cognitive adaptability, defined as the ability to be dynamic, flexible, and self-regulating in one's cognitions given dynamic and uncertain task environments. Construction of the inventory, and subsequent factor analysis, is confirmatory in nature based on five theoretically justified dimensions of metacognition. The author describes the development of the instrument, discusses its implications for entrepreneurship, and finally offers suggestions for further development and testing.

James Hayton et al., Entrepreneurial Opportunity Identification and New Firm Development Processes: A Comparison of Family and Non-Family New Ventures, 13 Int’l J. Entrepren. & Innovation Mgmt. 12 (2011).

Abstract (from author): This research examines differences between family and non-family firms with respect to new venture creation processes. We invoke a social embeddedness explanation of differences between family and non-family firms with respect to opportunity identification processes and outcomes and new venture development processes. In a sample of 183 family and non-family firms, we find that family firms are less likely to report an opportunity identification process that is sudden, spontaneous and creative. The new opportunities thus identified are less innovative than those identified by non-family firms. Finally, family firms are somewhat more likely to follow effectuation processes and significantly less likely to follow causation processes during new venture creation. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

James C. Hayton & Magdalena Cholakova, The Role of Affect in the Creation and Intentional Pursuit of Entrepreneurial Ideas, 36 Entrepren. Theory & Prac. 41 (2012).

Abstract (adapted from journal): The creation and intentional pursuit of entrepreneurial ideas lies at the core of the domain of entrepreneurship. Recent empirical work in a number of diverse fields such as cognitive psychology, social cognition, neuroscience, and neurophysiology all suggest that dual processes involving affect and cognition have a significant impact on judgment and decision making. Existing cognitive models ignore this significant role. In this article the authors develop a framework for understanding the role of affect on idea perception and the intention to develop the entrepreneurial idea. They present a set of testable propositions that link affect to entrepreneurial idea perception through its influence on attention, memory, and creativity. A second set of propositions links affect to the intention to pursue these ideas further. The authors explore the boundary conditions and moderators of the proposed relationships, and discuss the implications of this framework for existing cognitive and psychological perspectives on entrepreneurship.

James C. Hayton & Donna J. Kelley, A Competency-Based Framework for Promoting Corporate Entrepreneurship, 45 Human Res. Mgmt. 407-427 (2006).

Abstract provided by authors: Corporate entrepreneurship, the discovery and pursuit of new opportunities through innovation and venturing, is an important source of competitive advantage. Corporate entrepreneurship involves a diverse set of activities such as innovation in products and processes; the development of internal and external corporate ventures; and the development of new business models, which require an array of roles, behaviors, and individual competencies. In this article, we define individual competencies and distinguish them from other individual difference constructs. We argue that given the unique requirements of corporate entrepreneurship a competency based approach to assessing organizational human capital needs is superior to more traditional job-analytic methods. Drawing on existing literature, we outline a competency framework for supporting corporate entrepreneurship and infer the underlying, measurable knowledge, skills, and abilities that contribute to these competencies. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of this framework for the staffing, training and development, and performance-appraisal practices of firms seeking to promote corporate entrepreneurship.

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Xiaohong He, Theory and Practice of Emerging Market Firm Internationalisation: Perspectives from Chinese Non-State-Owned Entrepreneurship Ventures, 6 J. Int'l Bus. & Entrepren. 107 (2012).

Abstract (from journal): This paper draws from the disciplines of international business, strategic management, network-based organisational learning, and international entrepreneurship to analyse the internationalisation of entrepreneurship ventures in emerging markets, specifically focusing on whether this process differs from the experience of Anglo-American firms. Emphasis is placed on how emerging market entrepreneurship ventures internationalise in terms of actors involved, methods used, and motivating influences, as well as geographic and temporal factors. Examining cases in China through interviews and nationwide survey data, the paper identifies unique characteristics of emerging market firm internationalisation. Present findings suggest important challenges and opportunities as more entrepreneurial ventures from emerging markets enter the global marketplace.

Diana Heger et al., The Effect of Broadband Infrastructure on Entrepreneurial Activities: The Case of Germany (ZEW - Centre for European Economic Research Discussion Paper No. 11-081, 2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1992957.

Abstract (from authors): This paper investigates whether the local infrastructure favors entrepreneurial activities. Besides the physical and knowledge infrastructure the authors take into account a county’s broadband availability by building an index which accounts for county-related specificities. The authors find that broadband availability fosters entrepreneurial activities particularly in high-tech sectors for which efficient ways of knowledge transfer is crucial.

Henning Hillmann & Brandy L. Aven, Fragmented Networks and Entrepreneurship in Late Imperial Russia, 117 Am. J. Soc. 484 (2011).

Abstract (from authors): Emergent economies suffer from underdeveloped market infrastructures and insufficient public institutions to enforce contract commitments and property rights. Informal reputation-based arrangements may substitute for government enforcement, but they require close-knit networks that enable monitoring. Economic development also requires access to capital, information, and other resources, which is enabled by wide-reaching and diverse networks and not by closure. How is entrepreneurship possible given these conflicting demands? In this article, the authors examine how partnership networks and reputation channel the mobilization of capital for new enterprises, using quantitative information on 4,172 corporate partnerships during the industrialization of late imperial Russia (1869– 1913). They find that reputation is locally effective in small and homogeneous network components. By contrast, founders in the largest components that form the network core raise more capital from investors but benefit less from reputation and more from brokerage opportunities and ties that reach diverse communities.

Robert E. Hoskisson et al., Revitalizing Entrepreneurship: The Search for New Research Opportunities, 48 J. Mgmt. Studies 1141 (2011), also available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1895192.

Abstract (adapted from authors): Entrepreneurship research has traditionally focused on opportunity recognition and resource formation as processes that foster the emergence of new business ventures, through both the lens of the individual entrepreneur and corporate venturing. Although the authors observe that research is vibrant in these traditional areas, the authors also argue that the continued revitalization of the field of entrepreneurship can be fostered through examining opportunities for research in areas such as industry change and competition, inter ‐organizational cooperation (which has proliferated more recently), university ‐sponsored entrepreneurship, venture finance, institutional differences that foster entrepreneurship (primarily between different countries), and appropriability regime differences (including legal and regulatory frameworks) that foster entrepreneurial activities and profit appropriation. Besides pointing scholars to new promising directions, the authors argue for more attention to the transformational role of entrepreneurship itself by issuing a call for more multi ‐level research efforts that connect the micro ‐ and macro ‐foundations of entrepreneurship and explore the revitalization ‐related uncertainties such as the cost of creating an entrepreneurial orientation and whether there is an optimal level.

Ahmed Imran Hunjra et al., Planned Behavior Entrepreneurship and Intention to Create New Venture Among Young Graduates (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1944685.

Abstract (from authors): This paper attempts to investigate whether young graduates possess the leadership style that is pre-requisite to become entrepreneur. The paper further examines the role of higher education towards the desire of new venture creation among young graduates in developing economies specially. This study analyzed the response of 225 final-semester students at different universities in Islamabad, Rawalpindi and Lahore. A questionnaire based survey instrument was used. Result of the present study shows that education and new venture creation are positively and significantly correlated. The results further indicate that all variables used in this study are significantly correlated with intention to create a new venture. The limitation of this study is that it includes business and economics discipline students only. Further studies may investigate and examine the possibilities of similar outcomes among students of other disciplines including science, engineering, medicine, agriculture and law etc. The present study will, however, provide insight to future policy makers and planners to consider strategies for optimally utilizing the expertise and potentials of the young graduates. The academicians, educators, and university authorities have rethink what to teach? How to teach? In order to effectively prepare-young generation for the forthcoming challenges.

Sadudin Ibraimi & Gadaf Rexhepi, The Link between Intellectual Capital, Strategy and Entrepreneurship (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1929078.

Abstract (from authors): Recently the role of the intellectual is becoming very important inside small and medium enterprises because of their influence in formulation and implementation of strategies in these enterprises. This research will try to examine the links between intellectual capital of entrepreneurs, strategies and entrepreneurship they use to discover business opportunities. This research will try to find the link according to the already made research around the world and also there will be an empirical research that will be made in a forty five enterprises in different cities in the Republic of Macedonia. The aim of the research is to emphasize the role of intellectual capital in formulation and implementation of strategies through theoretical and practical research that will explain in a better way the link or the relationship between intellectual capital, strategy and entrepreneurship. This will help entrepreneurs to better understand and use intellectual capital in strategy formulation of enterprises by investing in intellectual capital in order to formulate and better implement the strategies in enterprises. Through better use and investing in intellectual capital entrepreneurs and their workers will be able to discover opportunities for new business and enhance their competitive advantage in a market.

Eren Inci, Occupational Choice and the Quality of Entrepreneurs, 92 J. Econ. Behav. & Org. 1 (2013).

Eugen Iordanescu, Cornelia Iordanescu & Gabriela Marcu, Economic and Psychological Factors in Entrepreneurial Tendency (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1753626.

Abstract: In the actual context of global economical crisis, the research question we raised was: Which of the personality traits, formerly associated with entrepreneurship, remain sufficiently stable/strong to overcome the negative economic conditions? That was the starting point to propose experimental evaluation of the possible effect of certain factors such as the exposure to negative mass media messages about the economy status and the personal perception regarding the money source/value as regards to the tendency of investing in a small business of the youngsters with a high Internal Locus of Control level. 

Two hundred seventy-three students from University Lucian Blaga of Sibiu participated in the experiment. The experimental design was of 2x2 factorial type. The results showed that the main effect of Fl Source of money was not significant, while the main effect of F2 Media messages was significant, proving evidence that the amount of Invested money differ in relationship with the type of media message exposure.

Ana Jakopec, Irena Miljkovic Krečar & Zoran Sušanj, Predictors of Entrepreneurial Intentions of Students of Economics, 55 Studia Psychologica 289 (2013).

Abstract (adapted from authors): The aim of this empirical research is to verify the contribution of entrepreneurial tendencies and abilities, perceived entrepreneurial self-efficacy and desirability of entrepreneurship to the entrepreneurial intentions. The results show that the self-assessment of entrepreneurial tendencies and abilities is positively associated with the perceptions of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and desirability of entrepreneurship, which also contributes positively to explanation of entrepreneurial intentions. In addition, it was found that entrepreneurial tendencies and abilities influence entrepreneurial intentions only indirectly, through entrepreneurial self-efficacy and desirability of entrepreneurship. Finally, entrepreneurial tendencies and abilities, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and desirability of entrepreneurship together, explain most of the variance of the entrepreneurial intentions. 

Justin J. P. Jansen, Corporate Entrepreneurship: Sensing and Seizing Opportunities for a Prosperous Research Agenda (ERIM Report Series, Reference No. EIA-2011-046-STR, 2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1811474.

Abstract (from author): Strategic and corporate entrepreneurship have been widely acknowledged by scholars and executives alike as an effective means of revitalizing organizations to improve performance. Spurring entrepreneurial behavior and exploration within established organizations, however, remains a big challenge facing today’s businesses. As organizations grow and age over time, like people in general, they tend to become set in their ways of thinking, learning, managing and acting – they become less flexible and less willing to sense and seize new opportunities. There is little doubt that the mindsets and organizational attributes needed for exploring and leveraging new opportunities are radically different from those needed for smoothening ongoing operations, making it difficult to pursue both sets of activities at the same time within an organization. Given the importance for future sustainable growth, scholars have yet to uncover how organizations may reconcile conflicting demands and resolve the challenges associated with corporate entrepreneurship’s emphasis on leveraging existing opportunities as well as new ones ‘out there’. The aim of this inaugural address is to draw the foundations and to identify emergent opportunities for moving forward research on strategic entrepreneur - ship in general and on corporate entrepreneurship in particular. It considers the challenges associated with corporate entrepreneurship and details important organizational and managerial features of successful organizations that span different levels of analysis. The inaugural address concludes that the integration of theory and research in strategic management and entrepreneurship using such a multilevel approach generates valuable new research avenues underlying a prosperous research agenda.

Hao Jiao et al., Building Entrepreneurs’ Innovativeness through Knowledge Management: The Mediating Effect of Entrepreneurial Alertness, 26 Tech. Analysis & Strategic Mgmt. 501 (2014).

Abstract (by authors): This paper explores the possible relationship between sources of knowledge acquisition and entrepreneurs’ innovativeness from the perspective of knowledge management. Specifically, it employs the partial least squares structure equation model to study the entrepreneurs’ innovativeness through knowledge acquisition. It has been found that knowledge acquisition through social networks with suppliers, manufacturers and distributors and management practices has a positive effect on entrepreneurial alertness to business ideas. Moreover, entrepreneurial alertness plays a mediating role between sources of knowledge acquisition and entrepreneurs’ innovativeness. In addition, entrepreneurial alertness plays a completely mediating role between core social network knowledge and entrepreneurs’ innovativeness, and a partial mediating role between sources of knowledge acquisition and entrepreneurs’ innovativeness. The findings have both theoretical and practical implications for entrepreneurial learning in general.

Karen Jones et al., Action Learning: How Learning Transfers from Entrepreneurs to Small Firms, 11 Action Learning: Res. & Prac. 131 (2014).

Abstract (by authors): This paper presents research with small- and medium-sized enterprise (SME) owners who have participated in a leadership development program. The primary focus of this paper is on learning transfer and factors affecting it, arguing that entrepreneurs must engage in “action” in order to “learn” and that under certain conditions they may transfer learning to their firm. This paper draws on data from 19 focus groups undertaken from 2010 to 2012, involving 51 participants in the LEAD Wales program. It considers the literatures exploring learning transfer and develops a conceptual framework, outlining four areas of focus for entrepreneurial learning.

Geoffrey Jones & Christos Pitelis, Entrepreneurial Appropriability - Informed Imagination and Cross-Border Organisation (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1965525.

Abstract (from authors): This paper seeks to confront one of the more elusive characteristics of entrepreneurship, which have hindered its incorporation into the theory of cross-border organisation. It explores how entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial managers imagine or envision future real states of the world, and embark upon a process of creation, co-creation, and development of organisations, in order to realize their imagined realities. In so doing, they create and co-create cross-border markets and supporting ecosystems, institutions, and production systems that help shape the world to their image. This process is examined conceptually, and importantly, by employing historical case studies. These show how the emergence of the multinational enterprise (MNE) and globalization can be attributed in part to imaginative entrepreneurs, motivated by appropriability of returns on their perceived, or imagined, advantages, actions, and action potential, who act upon their images and visions in order to co-create the realities that allow them to realize their dreams-objectives.

Marian V. Jones et al., International Entrepreneurship Research (1989–2009): A Domain Ontology and Thematic Analysis, 26 J. Bus. Venturing 632 (2011).

Abstract (from journal): This article explores the domain of international entrepreneurship (IE) research by thematically mapping and assessing the intellectual territory of the field. Extant reviews show that the body of IE knowledge is growing, and while notable contributions towards theoretical and methodological integration are evident, the field is described as phenomenally based, potentially fragmented and suffering from theoretical paucity. Premising that IE is positioned at the nexus of internationalization and entrepreneurship where entrepreneurial behavior involves cross-border business activity, or is compared across countries, the article identifies 323 relevant journal articles published in the period 1989–2009. It inventories the domain of IE to provide a relevant and comprehensive organization of its research. This involves examining the subject matter of IE research, and inductively synthesizing and categorizing it into major themes and sub-themes. In so doing, the authors offer a reliable, ontologically constructed and practically useful resource. From this base, they discuss the phenomena, issues, inconsistencies and interim debates on which new theory in IE may be built and research may be conducted. The authors conclude that IE has several coherent thematic areas and is rich in potential for future research and theory development.

Sul Kassicieh et al., Measures of Entrepreneurial Ecosystems: Why Do We Need Them, Who Will Need Them, and What Will Be Done with Them? (George Washington University (GWU)-International Council for Small Business (ICSB) Proceedings of 6th Annual Global Entrepreneurship Research and Policy Conference, 2015), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2700795.

Abstract (from authors): Many authors have attempted to draw together a perspective on entrepreneurship that captures the influences of the environment. However, the description of the relationships between the entrepreneur, their firms and the broader environment or ecosystem, has varied among theorists. Based on the variations in viewpoint, this paper stops to ask three important questions that underpin the rationale of entrepreneurship ecosystem measurement: 1) Why is it important to measure entrepreneurial ecosystems? 2) Who will make use of a measure of entrepreneurial ecosystems? 3) What will a measure of entrepreneurial ecosystems be used for? The contribution of this paper is to illustrate a holistic view of entrepreneurial ecosystem, and focus on the measurement based on our international comparative studies within USA, Australia, France and Japan.

Teemu Kautonen et al., Predicting Entrepreneurial Behaviour: A Test of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1943950.

Abstract (from authors): This article contributes to the occupational choice literature pertaining to entrepreneurship by applying the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to predict entrepreneurial behaviour. Originating from social psychology, the TPB posits that intention, a function of behavioural beliefs, is a significant predictor of subsequent behaviour. In spite of an established stream of scholarship explaining the formation of entrepreneurial intentions, empirical research has not yet employed longitudinal data to examine whether the intention to start a business measured at one point of time translates into subsequent entrepreneurial behaviour. This article provides a full test of the TPB in the prediction of business start-up intentions and subsequent behaviour based on two-wave survey data (2006 and 2009) from the working-age population in Finland. The econometric results support the predictions outlined in the TPB: attitude, perceived behavioural control and subjective norms are significant predictors of entrepreneurial intention; and intention and perceived behavioural control are significant predictors of subsequent behaviour. This research thus provides support to the application of the TPB and the concept of behavioural intention to understand the emergence of complex economic behaviour such as entrepreneurship prior to the onset of any observable action.

Paul Kedrosky, Elon Musk, Oprah Winfrey, and Steve Jobs: Who is an Entrepreneurial Role Model? (Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, 2013), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2353869.

Abstract (by authors): Role models and imitation are important in entrepreneurship.  In an October 2013 paper, "Getting the Bug: Is (Growth) Entrepreneurship Contagious," we looked at the role of imitation in spurring entrepreneurship. In a related effort, this paper looks at entrepreneurial role models through the lens of which entrepreneurs are most readily identifiable by U.S. residents. 

Role models are important in many professional activities. They are a part of learning and progressing in fields like law, medicine, and engineering. Role models legitimate an activity — across genders, ages, races, and socioeconomic groups — and provide practical, tested examples of best practices. Role models play a significant role in business in general, and in entrepreneurship specifically. They are particularly crucial given the under-representation of women and non-Caucasians among entrepreneurs overall, and among growth entrepreneurs in particular. It is unclear, however, who typical Americans identify as entrepreneurial role models. Are they contemporaries? Do they identify anyone at all? It would be useful to understand who they recognize and how that varies by geography, gender, race, and income. 

This study surveyed 1,000 U.S. residents over age 18 about their knowledge of various entrepreneurs. Specifically, the survey asked respondents which people from a list of five candidates were entrepreneurs. The survey was conducted August 18-22, 2013, using Google Consumer Survey.

Donna J. Kelley & Hyunsuk Lee, Toward a Framework for Understanding the Management of Entrepreneurs in Established Organizations, 21 J. of Bus. Res. (Korea) 1-26 (2006).

Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, The Dark Side of Entrepreneurship, Harv. Bus. Rev. (Nov. 1, 1985).

Abstract (from publisher):  Most entrepreneurs, like many other people, have the normal amount of difficulty dealing with others, with the ups and downs of a career, and with the successes or failures of a company. Most entrepreneurs have their internal visions in tune with reality so that they act in the real world in a way that other people can understand. For some entrepreneurs, however, things are not so easy. For these people, the high degree of energy necessary to achieve a dream has desires and needs behind it that if let loose can wreak havoc in an organization. For instance, an entrepreneur's attention to detail that is a virtue in the startup phase can be truly crippling if he or she continues to exert such control when the organization grows. The person who can't let go the reins even when faced with the company's demise must have a need that is greater than the desire to see the company succeed.

Andreea N. Kiss et al., International Entrepreneurship Research in Emerging Economies: A Critical Review and Research Agenda, 27 J. Bus. Venturing 266 (2012).

Abstract (from journal): This article systematically reviews and critically examines international entrepreneurship research in emerging economies (IEEE research), and articulates its importance, timeliness and relevance in consideration of the growing influence of emerging markets in the global economy. A systematic analysis of eighty-eight journal articles published over the last two decades reveals that IEEE research is a vibrant and rapidly growing stream of the broader international entrepreneurship (IE) domain, and that it is methodologically and topically diverse. This review also shows that IEEE research has a limited presence in premier journals, is highly skewed in its geographic coverage, and is somewhat fragmented. The authors therefore inventory and critically evaluate the extant IEEE research with the aim of increasing its quality, coherence, scope, and impact. On the basis of our critique, the authors develop an ambitious research agenda that addresses a number of emergent global phenomena and raises exciting new questions for scholars in entrepreneurship, international business, and other related disciplines.

Abstract (adapted from authors): Strategic entrepreneurship is a newly recognized field that draws, not surprisingly, from the fields of strategic management and entrepreneurship. The field emerged officially with the 2001 special issue of the Strategic Management Journal on “strategic entrepreneurship”; the first dedicated periodical, the Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, appeared in 2007. Strategic entrepreneurship is built around two core ideas. (1) Strategy formulation and execution involves attributes that are fundamentally entrepreneurial, such as alertness, creativity, and judgment, and entrepreneurs try to create and capture value through resource acquisition and competitive positioning. (2) Opportunity-seeking and advantage-seeking — the former the central subject of the entrepreneurship field, the latter the central subject of the strategic management field — are processes that should be considered jointly. This entry explains the specific links between strategy and entrepreneurship, reviews the emergence and development of the strategic entrepreneurship field, and discusses key implications and applications.

Reddi Kotha & Gerard George, Friends, Family, or Fools: Entrepreneur Experience and It's Implications for Equity Distribution and Resource Mobilization (2012), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2004330.

Abstract (from authors): Who helps entrepreneurs raise the resources they need and how much equity does an entrepreneur distribute in return? The authors use a sample of 611 entrepreneurs in the U.S. to examine why some entrepreneurs are more likely than others to distribute ownership selectively to helpers. The authors find that entrepreneurs with specific industry experience and start-up experience are able to provide ownership more selectively and raise more resources from their helpers. The authors refine the categorization of social ties further to make a distinction between professional and familial ties to show that the ownership distribution and types of resource contributions vary by the mix of ties in the entrepreneur’s helper network. These findings have implications for theories of resource assembly, social structure and entrepreneurship, and organization design.

Martin Koudstaal, Randolph Sloof1 & Mirjam van Praag, Are Entrepreneurs More Optimistic and Overconfident than Managers and Employees? (Tinbergen Institute Discussion Paper 15-124/VII , 2015), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2687101.

Abstract (adapted from authors): Empirical evidence supports the conventional wisdom that entrepreneurs are more optimistic and overconfident than others. However, the same holds true for top managers. In this lab-in-the-field experiment the authors directly compare the scores of entrepreneurs, managers and employees on a comprehensive set of measures of optimism and overconfidence. The results show that on average entrepreneurs are more optimistic than others in their dispositional optimism and attributional style when bad events occur. For incentivized measures of over confidence the authors find no difference between entrepreneurs and managers, although both are more prone to it than employees. Finally, exploration of within-group heterogeneities shows that optimism and success are more strongly related for managers than for entrepreneurs and that an average entrepreneur is not more optimistic than successful managers. The authors conclude that optimism and overconfidence are indeed characteristics of entrepreneurs, but they are not unique when compared to (top) managers.

Sascha Kraus & Arndt Werner, Nascent Migrant Entrepreneurship in Germany – Is There a Cultural Imprinting Effect?, 15 Int'l J. Entrepren. & Small Bus. 320 (2012).

Abstract (adapted from journal): Based on an empirical investigation of 1,806 potential entrepreneurs, this article provides indications that with growing integration, people with a migrant background are increasingly less distinguishable from their German counterparts with regards to the willingness to found a new company. A 'cultural imprinting' effect in the sense of temporally stabile founding tendencies between different cultures cannot be identified. Interestingly, the authors’ analysis also shows that a higher tendency of non-integrated migrants to start a business is mostly attributable to their background in an industrialised nation, and not from the former 'Anwerberstaaten' or developing/emerging countries.

Norris Krueger, Markers of a Healthy Entrepreneurial Ecosystem (2012),available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2056182.

Abstract (adapted from author): Is there a term used as much as “entrepreneurial ecosystem” without defining it, let alone measuring it? (Besides “entrepreneurial mindset”, of course.) However, just as it is absolutely critical to nurture a more entrepreneurial mindset, communities really need to nurture a more entrepreneurial local economy. That means an entrepreneurial ecosystem that works to support increasing quantity (and quality!) of entrepreneurial activity. What are the markers of a healthy ecosystem? This is a first ‘go’ to identify a reasonably comprehensive scorecard, crowdsourced via some great entrepreneurs, scholars & educators, that is intended to be developmental, not punitive.

Norris F. Krueger, Jr., What Lies Beneath?: The Experiential Essence of Entrepreneurial Thinking, 31(1) Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 123 (2007).

Abstract (from author): Cognitive developmental psychology and constructivism offer possibilities for the future of entrepreneurial cognition research to explore: (1) deeply seated beliefs and belief structures that ultimately anchor entrepreneurial thinking and (2) how they change as entrepreneurs move toward a more professional, expert mind-set. Such insights aid the field in identifying those developmental experiences that are the sources of those critical deep beliefs intrinsic to our mental models regarding entrepreneurship. As a field, entrepreneurship is lauded for the effectiveness of its teaching, and this essay offers strong theory to explain that our pedagogical best practices reflect important, well-known cognitive phenomena.

Donald F. Kuratko, Entrepreneurship Theory, Process, and Practice in the 21st Century, 13 Int'l J. Entrepren. & Small Bus. 8 (2011).

Abstract (adapted from journal): If history is the true roadmap of our future then our economic resurgence will rise from the energy and passion that continually arises from the entrepreneurial spirit inside of individuals. Why? Because it is the result of individual innovation, passion and tenacity. Whether creating the innovations from inside or outside established organisations, it is that knowledge power that fuels a market economy. The one true enduring force is entrepreneurship and the innovation it creates. However, that same force surges in the growing field of entrepreneurship education. This article reviews all three components and highlights some of the critical questions that confront entrepreneurship education in the 21st century and how entrepreneurship educators can be the solutions to those questions.

Donald F. Kuratko, Strategic Entrepreneurship: Exploring Different Perspectives of an Emerging Concept, 33(1) Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 1 (January 1, 2009).

Abstract (from publisher): Within the entrepreneurship and strategic management domains there has been a movement by scholars to combine certain aspects of both areas to create a new concept of strategic entrepreneurship. To date, however, there remains much to know about what constitutes this concept. This special issue is the result of a unique research conference in Germany where some of the world's most renowned scholars gathered to explore this concept in depth. The set of articles in this special issue examine different perspectives that relate to strategic entrepreneurship and we believe contribute to the growing body of knowledge on this concept by examining diverse scholarly topics.

Thomas Lans et al., Analysing, Pursuing And Networking: Towards a Validated Three-factor Framework for Entrepreneurial Competence from a Small Firm Perspective, 29 Int'l Small Bus. J. 695 (2011).

Abstract (from journal): Research acknowledges that entrepreneurial core processes are enabled by specific competencies which can be learned, further refined and developed. The research objective of this article is to develop a framework for entrepreneurial competence in a well-defined small firm sector by elaborating and empirically validating an existing categorization of entrepreneurial competence. The dataset includes 348 small firm owner-managers who participated in an educational programme, established to pursue new business opportunities in the Dutch agri-food sector. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis revealed that three domains constitute the heart of entrepreneurial competence in this small firm context: ‘analysing’, ‘pursuing’ and ‘networking’. These three competence domains provide professionals active in sector development, small business support and (vocational) education with an empirically valid framework of clearly discernible elements of entrepreneurial competence. This framework also encompasses insights on education and learning.

Frank Lasch & Leo-Paul Dana, Contrasting Contexts for Entrepreneurship: Capitalism by Kyrgyz Decree Compared to Gradual Transition in Uzbekistan, 24 J. Small Bus. & Entrepren. 319 (2011).

Abstract (adapted from journal): Both independent since 1991, the Kyrgyz Republic and Uzbekistan have taken different paths of post-communism reflected by contrasting models of transition. The Kyrgyz Republic, with agriculture contributing half its GDP, has an open economy, encouraging foreign collaboration and reflecting the values of its secular society. In contrast, Uzbekistan is home to a religious society, its economy is more industrialised and relatively closed, and less than a third of its GDP comes from agriculture. This paper's findings show how different transition models reflect different levels of political stability and trigger unlike environments for entrepreneurship and economic evolution.

Hervé Lebret, Age and Experience of High-Tech Entrepreneurs (2014), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2416888 .

Abstract (by author): There has been a recurrent debate about the relative importance of age and experience in high-tech entrepreneurship where the uncertainty not to say non-existence of certain markets and products may render knowledge less critical than in established industries. Are the famous entrepreneurs in their early and mid-twenties exceptions? Some recent studies claim that the average age of entrepreneurs is closer to forty years old. The authors revisited the topic and analyzed not only the age of founders but also their roles when the company reached success and the links with geography, fields of business, value creation and venture capital.

Josh Lerner, Entrepreneurship, Public Policy, and Cities (World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper No. 6880, 2014), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2439701.

Abstract (by author): Since the 2008-09 global financial crises, interest among policy makers in promoting innovative ventures has exploded. The emerging great hubs of entrepreneurial activity, like Bangalore, Dubai, Shanghai, Silicon Valley, Singapore, and Tel Aviv, bear the unmistakable stamp of the public sector. Enlightened government intervention played a key role in each region's emergence. But for each effective government intervention, dozens, even hundreds, disappointed with substantial public spending bearing no fruit.

 This paper sheds light on how governments can avoid mistakes in stimulating entrepreneurship. In recent decades, efforts have increased to provide the world's poorest with financing and other assistance to facilitate their entry into entrepreneurship or the growth of their small ventures. These are typically subsistence businesses offering services like snack preparation or clothing repair. Such businesses typically allow business owners and their families to get by, but little else. The public policy literature, along with academic studies of new ventures, often does not distinguish among the types of businesses being studied. The author focuses here exclusively on high-potential new ventures and the policies that enhance them. This choice, not intended to diminish the importance of efforts to boost microenterprises, reflects the complexity of the field: the dynamics and issues involving micro firms are quite different from those of their high-potential counterparts. A substantial literature suggests that promising entrepreneurial firms can have a powerful effect in transforming industries and promoting innovation.

Othmar M. Lehner & Juha Kansikas, Opportunity Recognition in Social Entrepreneurship: A Thematic Meta Analysis, 21 J. Entrepren. 25 (2012).

Abstract (from author): Opportunity recognition (OR) is at the very heart of entrepreneurship. However, research on OR in the context of social entrepreneurship is still in its early stages. First, this article identifies, codifies and analyses OR-relevant articles on social entrepreneurship (SE) through the lens of Sarasvathy’s three views of entrepreneurial opportunity recognition. In the second step, statistical methods are applied on the results to indicate possible correlations among different schools of thought in SE and views on OR. OR in social ventures is found to be a prevalent topic in SE literature and differences in OR between social and commercial ventures are found.

Josh Lerner & William Sahlman, Reviving Entrepreneurship, Harv. Bus. Rev., March 2012, at 116.

Abstract: This article takes the position that the United States' entrepreneurial sector is weakening, and policy changes need to be made to support it. The authors identify twelve policy decisions that would help American entrepreneurs to thrive.

Moren Levesque, Entrepreneurs’ Decisions on Timing of Entry: Learning from Participation and from the Experiences of Others, 33(2) Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 547 (March 1, 2009).

Abstract (from publisher):  Depending on the type of industry, an entrepreneur's decision of when to enter an industry may be a crucial one. The longer entrepreneurs wait, the more they learn from others. However, by waiting, they reduce their ability to learn directly and the possibility of locking in competitive advantages. We suggest that the optimal time of entry depends on the hostility of the learning environment since the latter has an impact on dimensions of performance, such as profit potential and mortality risk. The environment for entrepreneurial learning is less hostile when the information to be learned is abundant and when learning from others is relatively more effective at increasing performance than learning from participation.

James Liang, Entrepreneurship and Demographics (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1984831.

Abstract (from author): Motivated by Japan’s recent poor economic performance and lack of young entrepreneurs, the author builds a model of how an aging workforce can negatively affect entrepreneurship activities. The model assumes: 1) young people are more likely to start a company (to be a risk taker); 2) to be successful, a young entrepreneur needs to have high human capital; 3) a young person’s human capital growth depends on his or her position or ranking in the organization. With these assumptions, in a typical seniority based system, young people will be promoted more slowly when the size of the old cohort is relatively larger in the organization. Therefore, in an aging society, not only there are fewer young people, but even fewer young people with the high human capital necessary for being successful entrepreneurs. Empirically, the author finds that young cohort size is positively linked to entrepreneurship activity and economic performance.

Diego Liechti et al., Luck and Entrepreneurial Success (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1954560.

Abstract (adapted from authors): The authors conducted a large survey of entrepreneurs to assess the importance of luck in firm performance. With a standard regression model and an exhaustive set of individual and firm-specific variables, the authors are unable to explain more than 30 percent of firm performance. If luck is unexplained performance, then entrepreneurial success would therefore seem to be mostly luck. Yet there could have been model mis-specification and measurement error, even though the coefficient estimates obtained are consistent with the literature. As an alternative, the authors therefore ask entrepreneurs directly. With that approach, they find that luck is by far less important than other factors of success such as effort, experience, and education. According to a principal component analysis, luck seems to be responsible for less than one third of performance variation. The authors find no evidence that this self-reported assessment is biased by overconfidence, risk aversion, illusion of control, or past performance. There is also no evidence that entrepreneurs as a group have a distorted view of reality. Rather, the evidence shows that the self-declared perceptions in the survey are internally consistent and that they shape decisions. In particular, individuals who believe that luck is important are discouraged from undertaking an entrepreneurial career. Similarly, entrepreneurs who assign luck a large role are reluctant to borrow. Finally, what entrepreneurs believe to be luck actually correlates with what the standard regression model of entrepreneurial performance is unable to explain. Overall, there is no reason to believe that what entrepreneurs perceive to be luck is anything but luck.

 Abstract (by authors): Parental entrepreneurship is a strong, probably the strongest, determinant of own entrepreneurship. We explore the origins of this intergenerational association in entrepreneurship. In particular, we identify the separate effects of pre- and post-birth factors (nature and nurture), by using a unique dataset of Swedish adoptees. Its unique characteristic is that it not only includes data on occupational status for the adoptees and their adoptive parents, but also for their biological parents. Moreover, we use comparable data on entrepreneurship for a large, representative sample of the Swedish population. Based on the latter sample, and consistent with previous findings, we show that parental entrepreneurship increases the probability of children's entrepreneurship by about 60%. We further show that for adoptees, both biological and adoptive parents make significant contributions. These effects, however, are quite different in size. The effect of post-birth factors (adoptive parents) is approximately twice as large as the effect of pre-birth factors (biological parents). The sum of these two effects for adopted children is almost identical to the intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurship for own-birth children. We explore several candidate explanations for this important post-birth effect and present suggestive evidence in favor of role modeling.

Tainyi Luor et al., Trends in and Contributions to Entrepreneurship Research: A Broad Review of Literature from 1996 to June 2012, 99 Scientometrics 353 (2014).

Abstract (by authors): This article, which began as an effort to gauge trends in and contributions to the broad field of “entrepreneur/entrepreneurship,” reviews 5,476 academic articles on entrepreneurship that were published in 522 Social Sciences Citation Index and Science Citation Index journals from 1996 to June 2012. This survey identifies keywords and conducts a review to search for and identify related articles in the Institute for Scientific Information Web of Science database. The authors then present their findings, including the number of publications by year, categorization of article types, main academic journals, authors, and most-cited articles. The citation counts for authors, journals, and articles are also analyzed. This study indicates that the number of articles related to the keyword entrepreneur increased from 1996 to the end of 2011, which is a sign of an upward trend in the influence of entrepreneurs. Entrepreneur research fascinated numerous scholars during the study period covering 16.5 years. In particular, researchers from the USA, England, Canada, Germany, and the Netherlands have made the most contributions to this field. This literature review provides evidence that the concept of entrepreneur attracted academic researchers, resulting in significant contributions to the field of entrepreneur research.

Silvia Magri, Household Wealth and Entrepreneurship: Is There a Link? (Bank of Italy Temi di Discussione, Midwest Finance Association 2012 Annual Meeting, Working Paper No. 719), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1925361.

Abstract (adapted from author): The issue of the importance of financial constraints in hampering the birth of new entrepreneurs is still debated. One of the ways to identify financial constraints is to look at the importance of household wealth in the decision to become an entrepreneur. In the absence of correlation between wealth and entrepreneurial talent, wealth should matter in this decision only for financially constrained households. However, the presence of correlation creates an endogeneity problem of wealth if talent is unobserved; other unobservable household characteristics create similar problems. This paper makes a contribution to this literature first by using measures of unobservable household characteristics such as entrepreneurial talent, risk aversion and preference for luxury goods; new instruments for wealth are also tried. To verify the existence of financial constraints the auoths also consider geographical measures of legal enforcement and focus on entrepreneurs who make significant up-front investments in their business. The evidence is that in Italy household wealth matters in the decision to become an entrepreneur. More importantly, this effect is lower for the richest households as expected if wealth effect is mainly driven by financial constraints. Wealth is also more important in influencing the birth of new entrepreneurs in regions where legal enforcement is less strong and for households rationed in the credit market. Overall, in Italy wealth seems therefore to matter in the decision to become an entrepreneur due to the existence of financial constraints.

Sami Mahroum & Elizabeth Scott, What Should Determine Where Start-Ups Choose to Locate? The Five Cs of Place Surplus (INSEAD, Working Paper No. 2014/25, INSEAD Innovation Policy Initiative, 2014) available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2413873.

Abstract (by authors): This paper examines the factors that underlie location decisions made by entrepreneurs that have established successful hi-tech endeavors in non-traditional places. The paper considers the cases of Skype in Estonia and SoundCloud in Berlin. Lessons are drawn from the cases and a theoretical framework proposed entitled “the Five Cs framework” in reference to the elements of Cost, Calibre, Convenience, Creativity, and Community that are used to capture the utility of a location. A new rationale is offered to explain what entrepreneurs who succeed consider and are influenced by when choosing a location for their ventures.

Frank Martin & Ronnie Smith, What Is It That Entrepreneurs Learn from Experience? 24 Ind. & Higher Ed. 505 (2010).

 Abstract: Researchers interviewed many experienced entrepreneurs, and then created a conceptual model of experience, learning, knowledge and business performance to analyze what the entrepreneurs’ experience has taught them in each area.

Agne Matiusinaite & Jurgita Sekliuckiene, Factors Determining Early Internationalization of Entrepreneurial SMEs: Theoretical Approach, 8 Int’l J. Bus. & Econ. Sci. Applied Res. 21 (2016).

Abstract (adapted from authors): The main purpose of this paper is to develop a theoretical framework to investigate factors determining early internationalization of international new ventures. This study extends the scientific discussion of early internationalization of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The conceptual framework is built on the analysis and synthesis of scientific literature. This paper presents different factors, which determine early internationalization of new ventures. These factors are divided to entrepreneurial, organizational and contextual factors. The authors argue that early internationalization of new ventures is defined by entrepreneurial characteristics and previous experience of the entrepreneur, opportunity recognition and exploitation, risk tolerance, involvement in networks and contextual factors, among others. This study proved that only interaction between factors and categories has an effect for business development and successful implementation of early internationalization.

Cynthia Mathieu & Étienne St-Jean, Entrepreneurial Personality: The Role of Narcissism, 55 Personality & Individual Differences 527 (2013).

Abstract (adapted from publisher): This article explores the role of narcissism in entrepreneurial intentions. The authors found that student entrepreneurs score higher on the NPI than other vocational groups, narcissism is positively correlated with general self-efficacy, and Narcissism is positively correlated with locus of control. Narcissism is also positively correlated with risk propensity. The article concludes that narcissism plays a significant role in explaining entrepreneurial intentions.

Ashish Mathur & Meeta Nihalani, Promotion of Ventures by the Entrepreneurs in the Modern Era (2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1968237.

Abstract (from authors): The concept of entrepreneurship has a wide range of meanings. On one extreme end, the entrepreneur is a person with high aptitude to take changes and on the other hand, entrepreneur is a person who takes economic activities for himself. The concept of entrepreneur venture differs from the small scale business in this the amount of wealth created is more and the speed of wealth created is high. The risk associated with the venture is high and is designed by the innovative abilities of the entrepreneurs. The entrepreneur is a person with high aptitude for changes and he works for himself. The venture capital has significant benefits and the venture back companies generally grow at a faster and accelerated pace. With venture capital in place, customer, supplier’s staff and even the banks have higher confidence. The basic aim of the paper is to analyse the potential opportunities to build the ventures by the entrepreneurs so to design the world of creativity by his innovative abilities.

Adam G. Martin, Discovering Rhetoric: The Ecology of Enterprise in the Bourgeois Era (2012), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1936149.

Abstract (from author): Deirdre McCloskey's Bourgeois Dignity deploys Israel Kirzner's theory of entrepreneurial discovery as a critical component in her explanation of the Industrial Revolution. This essay examines whether Kirzner's theory can bear the analytical load that McCloskey would place on it. The author identifies two potential incongruities between Kirzner's theory and McCloskey's historical account but find them both unconvincing. Kirzner's entrepreneur is a good fit for McCloskey's story. The author argues further that the fit can be strengthened by incorporating further elements of Kirzner's theory, including entrepreneurial alertness.

Matthew J. Mayhew et al., Cultivating Innovative Entrepreneurs for the Twenty-First Century: A Study of U.S. and German Students, 87 J. Higher Educ. 420 (2016).

Abstract (from authors): The purpose of this exploratory study was to examine the cultivation of innovative entrepreneurial intentions among students in three distinctive educational settings: a U.S. undergraduate four-year environment, a U.S. M.B.A two-year environment, and a German five-year business and technology environment. Results suggest that innovative entrepreneurial intentions varied based on educational setting. Implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed.

A. Mehta, Critical Success Characteristics of Entrepreneurs for the Successful Entrepreneurship at Indian SMEs, 39 Elixir Human Resource Mgmt. 4729 (2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1937897.

Abstract (from author): This paper provides a list of 100 critical successes characteristic (CSCs) of the entrepreneur that may influence the success of entrepreneurship at Indian SMEs. One close ended questionnaire was used to collect the data from the 30 Indian entrepreneurs those who are having experience of managing Indian enterprise (Indian SMEs). The data collected were analyzed using statistical techniques such as descriptive statistics test.

A. Mehta, Strategic Entrepreneurship: An Integrated Innovative Entrepreneurial Process for CRM Implementation at Indian SMEs, 39 Advanced Eng. Informatics 4714 (2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1937891.

Abstract (from author): The purpose of this theoretical framework is to provide a better understanding of the prospects, process, problems, usage and issues related to Customer Relationship Management (CRM) in Indian SMEs so that it may help to implement, adopt and use CRM as an interactive entrepreneurial tool for strategic and successful customer relationship management at Indian SMEs. To reach this understanding this research can starts with three dimensions or group of respondents like CRM Vendor (CRM professionals, academics and experts), CRM Client/ CRM Customer (Indian SMEs, Indian entrepreneur) and CRM Beneficiary ( regular customer/consumer/buyer/common men). Based on the developed theory and literature review research questions can be answered to achieve this purpose (understanding). The major area of concern for all three group of respondents can be CRM (Awareness, Interest level), CRM (Planning, Strategy level), CRM Expectation(Objectives, Need level ), CRM Implementation level , CRM Adoption and Updating (Maintenance, Stabilization level ), CRM Measurement (Satisfaction, Feedback level ), CRM Challenge (Problem, Issue, Risk, Disadvantages level ), CRM Deliverables (Benefits, Advantages level ), CRM Control level and CRM Forecasting (Future Prospects, R &D, Improvements level ) levels for the successful CRM implementation, adoption and usage at Indian SMEs. Using the developed theory and literature review about these research objectives, a framework of the reference can be developed to collect the information from three different groups of respondents. These groups can be studied through Case analysis and BBP (Best Business Practice) Survey. Primary data can be collected from Semi Structured Questionnaire (Based on open ended as well as close ended questions), Semi Structure Interview supported by Content Analysis and Grounded Theory.

Danny Miller, Miller (1983) Revisited: A Reflection on EO Research and Some Suggestions for the Future, 35 Entrepren. Theory & Prac. 873 (2011).

Abstract (from journal): Using Miller (1983) as a starting point, this article reviews the literature on entrepreneurial orientation or “EO.” It summarizes Miller's major points before recapping some of the subsequent literature and assessing why EO has become such a prominent topic. It identifies weaknesses in the literature, some of which, paradoxically, Miller wrote his article to guard against. It then makes recommendations for extending conceptually, and improving methodologically, future research on EO, arguing the importance of linking EO to current theories in strategy, organization theory, and economics. Methodological reorientations are also suggested to arrive at more cumulative and practical findings.

Danny Miller & Isabelle Le Breton‐Miller, Governance, Social Identity, and Entrepreneurial Orientation in Closely Held Public Companies, 35 Entrepren. Theory & Prac. 1051 (2011), also available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1934080.

Abstract (from authors): Based on notions from the identity theory, this study argues that in public firms in which ownership is concentrated, owner ‐chief executive officer (CEO) identities will influence entrepreneurial orientation (EO), and EO will relate to superior performance. Specifically, lone founder owners and CEOs will embrace entrepreneurial identities: their firms will exhibit high levels of EO and outperform. Post ‐founder family owners and CEOs, given their ties to family in the organization, will assume identities as family nurturers, thereby limiting EO and performance. Family firm founders will exhibit blended identities and demonstrate intermediate levels of EO and performance. This analysis of Fortune 1000 firms finds support for these arguments.

Chandra Mishra & Ramona Zachary, The Theory of Entrepreneurship, 5 Entrepreneurship Res. J. 251 (2015).

Abstract (from authors): The theory of entrepreneurship, namely the entrepreneurial value creation theory, explains the entrepreneurial experience in its fullest form, from the entrepreneurial intention and the discovery of an entrepreneurial opportunity, to the development of the entrepreneurial competence, and the appropriation of the entrepreneurial reward. The theory of entrepreneurship provides in sufficient detail the interiors of the entrepreneurial process using a two-stage value creation framework. In the first stage of venture formulation, the entrepreneur driven by a desire for entrepreneurial reward (i.e., entrepreneurial intention) leverages the entrepreneurial resources at hand to sense an external opportunity (cue stimulus) and effectuate the entrepreneurial competence that is sufficient to move to the second stage. Several ventures fail at this stage. In the second stage of venture monetization, the entrepreneur may acquire external resources such as venture capital or strategic alliance to effect growth. Investors face an adverse selection problem when entrepreneurial ability and venture quality are difficult to ascertain. Entrepreneurs may use incentive signals to secure a higher valuation offer from the investors. A business model design with embedded dynamic capabilities can reconfigure the entrepreneurial competence to create sustained value and appropriate the entrepreneurial reward.

Sasi Misra, Ramesh Sawant: Story of an Entrepreneur’s Journey without the Map, 21 J. Entrepren. 133 (2012).

Abstract (from author): Rameshchandra Wamanrao Sawant is a self-taught entrepreneur, now at the helm of diverse RWS group of companies. Sawant and Misra (the author of this case study) have been friends for over four decades. Over the years, Misra has closely observed Ramesh Sawant’s various ventures: marine products exports, real estate development and tourism island development. This is a narrative of an out-of-the-ordinary entrepreneur who did not come from affluence, family business background or a stereotypically entrepreneurial community. Teachers and students may study this case for discussing the old questions: (1) whether entrepreneurs are born or made (2) leadership style and roles of a first generation entrepreneur and (3) succession planning for entrepreneurs.

Ronald K. Mitchell, Increasing Returns and the Domain of Entrepreneurship Research, 35 Entrepren. Theory & Prac. 615 (2011).

Abstract (adapted from journal): The domain definition of entrepreneurship research is “in play” as the Academy of Management Entrepreneurship Division prepares to submit a revision to its 1995 Domain Statement; and as “inclusive” vs. “distinctive” adjectives characterize the debate. In this essay, the author argues that the inclusiveness/distinctiveness question itself poses a false dilemma detrimental to the development of entrepreneurship research as a field of excellence, when seen as a domain of increasing vs. decreasing returns. To encourage balanced discussion, The author analyzes the current and proposed domain statements according to their implicit worldview, content, basis for boundary setting, and implications for resolving domain-boundary conflicts.

Jay Mitra & Yazid Abubakar, Entrepreneurial Growth and Labour Market Dynamics: Spatial Factors in the Consideration of Relevant Skills and Firm Growth in the Creative, Knowledge-Based Industries (University of Essex, CER Working Paper No. 1, 2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1984009.

Abstract (adapted from authors): This paper is concerned with the exploration of some of the critical, spatial and structural factors underpinning industry growth, entrepreneurship and labor market dynamics with particular reference to the so-called ‘Creative Industries.’ This research shows a statistically significant spatial correlation between levels of human capital (amongst other framework factors) and higher rates of new firm formation in knowledge-intensive sectors in the United Kingdom. It then goes on to investigate how human capital (measured in terms of educational attainment at different levels) can be enhanced within an economically peripheral sub-region to overcome mismatches between the supply of, and demand for, what the government terms ‘economically valuable’ skills (Leitch Review of Skills in the UK, 2004). Not all such enhancement measures generate entrepreneurial outcomes in terms of self-employment and new business creation. Equally, the availability of flexible labor and skills can support the growth of innovative firms. It is precisely these dynamics within local production systems, coupled with the existence of an entrepreneurial capability, that force many workers to change from the status of self-employed to that of employees at various times in their lives (Cappellin, 1998). Thus, the issue of labor market skills and flexibility is of particular relevance in this paper.

Michael H. Morris et al., Framing the Entrepreneurial Experience, 36 Entrepren. Theory & Prac. 11 (2012), also available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1987973.

Abstract (from authors): Building on affective events theory (AET), an experiential perspective for conceptualizing entrepreneurship is introduced. As a “lived experience,” entrepreneurship represents a cumulative series of interdependent events that takes on properties rooted in affect and emotion. Unique characteristics of entrepreneurial experiences are examined. The entrepreneur is presented as actor in an unscripted temporal performance who continually encounters novelty. A model and set of propositions are presented linking pre-venture experience, key events, experiential processing, learning, affective outcomes, and decision making. It is argued that the entrepreneur and venture emerge as a function of ongoing experience, with the venture creating the entrepreneur as the entrepreneur creates the venture.

Fariss-Terry Mousa & William Wales, Founder Effectiveness in Leveraging Entrepreneurial Orientation, 50 Mgmt. Decision 305 (2012).

Abstract (adapted from journal): This paper aims to explore the effects of entrepreneurial orientation (EO) on firm survival and examine whether founder chief executive officers (CEOs) are more effective than other types of managers at utilizing entrepreneurial orientation at initial public offerings (IPOs). Using survival analysis the authors investigate the effects of EO on firm survival as well as the moderating role of founder CEOs. The results suggest that EO increases post-IPO survival. Further, founder-CEOs moderate the EO-survival relationship. The paper shows that entrepreneurial orientation enhances long-term survival in IPO firms. Survival is an important, though generally overlooked consideration in EO research. The paper also concludes that firms with founder CEOs are more likely to value and implement EO. Finally, the paper addresses calls for greater use of secondary measures of EO.

Johann Peter Murmann & Deepak Sardana, Successful Entrepreneurs are Not Risk Takers: Toward a Theory of Entrepreneurial Decision Making (UNSW Australian School of Business Research Paper No. 2010 STRE 05, 2010), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1732878.

Abstract: Many scholars see entrepreneurs as action-oriented individuals who use rules of thumb and other mental heuristics to make decisions, but who do little systematic planning and analysis. This paper argues that what distinguishes successful from unsuccessful entrepreneurs is precisely that they vary their decision-making styles, sometimes relying on heuristics and sometimes relying on systematic analysis. In this proposed framework, successful entrepreneurs assess their level of expertise and the level of ambiguity in a particular decision context and then tailor their decision-making process to reduce risk.

Charles Murnieks et al., ‘I Like How You Think': Similarity as an Interaction Bias in the Investor–Entrepreneur Dyad, 48 J. Mgmt. Studies 1533 (2011), also available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1932523.

Abstract (from authors): Investigating the factors that influence venture capital decision-making has a long tradition in the management and entrepreneurship literature. However, few studies have considered the factors that might bias an investment decision in a way that is idiosyncratic to a given investor–entrepreneur dyad. The authors do so in this study. Specifically, they build from the literature on the ‘similarity effect’ to investigate the extent to which decision-making process similarity (shared between the investor and the entrepreneur) might bias or otherwise impact the investor's evaluation of a new venture investment opportunity. The findings suggest venture capitalists evaluate more favourably opportunities represented by entrepreneurs who ‘think’ in ways similar to their own. Moreover, in the presence of decision-making process similarity, the impacts of other factors that inform the investment decision actually change in counter-intuitive ways.

Patrick J. Murphy, A 2x2 Conceptual Foundation for Entrepreneurial Discovery Theory, 35 Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice 359 (2011), available at:http://ssrn.com/abstract=1788699.

 Abstract: Theories about entrepreneurial discovery are important to entrepreneurship. However, the dominant conceptual foundation underlying such theories hinders their development. It assumes that opportunities form based on either deliberate search or serendipitous discovery. This article examines this unidimensional logic and identify a gap in its informative content. Then, it reframes it into orthogonal dimensions. The multidimensional model not only describes the same cases as the unidimensional model but also describes what the unidimensional model cannot, including cases that are high or low on both dimensions. This extension yields a 22 conceptual foundation for entrepreneurial discovery theory that promotes the development and coordination of distinct theoretic streams.

Anand Nandkumar & Ashish Arora, Cash-Out or Flame-Out! Opportunity Cost and Entrepreneurial Strategy: Theory, and Evidence from the Information Security Industry (Indian School of Business WP, 2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1824284.

Abstract (adapted from author): The authors analyze how entrepreneurial opportunity cost conditions performance. Departing from the common practice of using survival as a measure of entrepreneurial performance, they model both failure and cash-out (liquidity event) as conditioned by the same underlying process. High-opportunity-cost entrepreneurs prefer a shorter time to success, even if this also implies failing more quickly, whereas entrepreneurs with fewer outside alternatives will choose less aggressive strategies, and, consequently, linger on longer. The authors formalize this intuition with a simple model. Using a novel dataset of information security startups, they find that entrepreneurs with high opportunity costs are not only more likely to cash out more quickly but are also more likely to fail faster. Not only is survival a poor indicator of performance, but its use as one obscures the relationship between entrepreneurial characteristics, entrepreneurial strategies, and outcomes.

Heidi M. Neck, et al., An Entrepreneurial System View of New Venture Creation, 42 J. Small Bus. Mgmt.190-208 (2004).

Abstract provided by authors:  This paper reports the results of a two-phase study that explores new venture creation within the context of an entrepreneurial system. First, a genealogy of high-technology companies is presented depicting a high spin-off rate resulting from the presence of seven incubator organizations. Second, semantic structure analysis ( ) based on semi-structured interviews with founders is used to develop a taxonomy. This taxonomy depicts the relationship among components in one entrepreneurial system, Boulder County, Colorado, that encourages, supports, and enhances regional entrepreneurial activity. Findings indicate that incubator organizations, spin-offs, informal and formal networks, the physical infrastructure, and the culture of the region are related uniquely and interact to form a system conducive for dense high-technology entrepreneurial activity. Additionally, greater rates of new venture formation were found following critical moments in the life of incubator organizations.

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Pehr-Johan Norbäck & Lars Persson, Entrepreneurial Innovations, Competition and Competition Policy (Research Institute of Industrial Economics, Centre for Economic Policy Research, 2010), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1926145.

Abstract (from authors): The authors construct a model where an entrepreneur could innovate for entry or for sale. It is shown that increased product market competition tends to increase the relative profitability of innovation for sale. Increased competition reduces entrants’ and acquirers’ profits in a similar fashion, but also reduces the profit of non-acquirers. Therefore, incumbents’ valuations of innovations are less negatively affected by increased competition, and the incentive for innovation for sale can increase with increased competition. Moreover, a stricter, but not too strict, merger policy is shown to increase the incentive for innovations for sale by ensuring the bidding competition for the innovation.

L. Nunziata & Lorenzo Rocco, The Implications of Cultural Background on Labour Market Choices: The Case of Religion and Entrepreneurship (IZA Discussion Paper No. 6114, 2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1965131.

Abstract (from authors): The authors suggest a methodology for identifying the implications of alternative cultural and social norms embodied by religious denomination on labour market outcomes, by estimating the differential impact of Protestantism versus Catholicism on the propensity to be an entrepreneur, on the basis of the diverse minority status of both confessions across European regions. Their quasi-experimental research design exploits the stronger degree of attachment to religious ethic of religious minorities and the exogenous historical determination of the geographical distribution of religious minorities in Europe. Their analysis of European Social Survey data collected in four waves between 2002 and 2008 in 22 European countries, indicates that cultural background has a significant effect on the individual propensity to become an entrepreneur, with Protestantism increasing the chances to be an entrepreneur by around 3% with respect to Catholicism. The authors' findings, stable across a number of robustness checks, provide further evidence on the need to take cultural elements into consideration when analysing economic behaviour.

Martin Obschonka et al., The Regional Distribution and Correlates of an Entrepreneurship-Prone Personality Profile in the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom: A Socioecological Perspective, 105 J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. 104 (2013).

Gina J. Colarelli O'Connor, Mark P. Rice, Lois J. Peters & Robert W. Veryzer,Managing Interdisciplinary, Longitudinal Research on Radical Innovation: Methods for Study of Complex Phenomena, Org. Sci. (2003).

Abstract (from author):  The purpose of this study is to extend the literature on grounded theory development to incorporate considerations for team-based, interdisciplinary longitudinal research projects in the domain of organizational studies. Every element of the research process is affected if the research questions call for team-based data collection and interpretation over a lengthy period of time. It is unusual for a team of scholars from different disciplines to work together, not because the need doesn't exist, but because the mechanisms for doing so are not well established. We draw from the writings of scholars in the fields of research methodology, team and work-group design, and project management to inform our thinking on the subject. The work presented here is based on the authors' experiences during 1995-1999 as members of the Radical Innovation Research Program (RIRP). The RIRP is an ongoing multidisciplinary study of the development and management of radical innovations in established firms. Here, we do not describe the findings or insights associated with the content of the study, radical innovation, which is surely a complex managerial phenomenon. Rather, we focus on the processes used to conduct the research that were affected by the need for a multidisciplinary research team. A framework is presented for thinking about managing such a project. Challenges that we encountered within this framework are identified. Mechanisms we used (or, in some cases, wish we had used in retrospect) for confronting those challenges are also described. Throughout, we compare our study objectives and resultant methodological design choices with those of other multidisciplinary research teams that are by now well known in the organizational management literature. Our objective is to help researchers who are considering launching interdisciplinary, longitudinal studies of organizational processes as they plan and manage those pursuits.

Micheal O’Flynn, Capital Accumulation and the Historical Decline of Liberal Individualism, 39 Critical Soc. 493 (2013).

Abstract (by author): “The individual” has been a central feature of western political thought for 300 years. However, the continuous transformation of the capitalist system, its tendency toward monopoly, its accelerating extension of commodification into the remaining global commons, particularly into the realms of knowledge and culture, is undermining the political function of this fundamental concept. The subordination and/or elimination of the owner-entrepreneur means that claims to represent “the individual” appear less and less credible. Increasingly coercive measures are required to facilitate the extraction of surplus value. The decline of liberal individualism (in its 19th-century form at least) is not temporary. Its central tenets will never again be fully embraced since they no longer offer a credible means of representing the needs of either industrial or finance capitalism in a favorable light.

Amina Omrane & Alain Fayolle, Entrepreneurial Competencies and Entrepreneurial Process: A Dynamic Approach, 6 Int’l J. Bus. & Globalisation 136 (2011).

Abstract (adapted from author): The purpose of this study is to shed light on some shade zones concerning the conceptualization ofentrepreneurial competencies, within the framework of a processual approach. Specifically, the authors focus on the identification of the needed competencies by the entrepreneur throughout the process of venturecreation. For this, they subscribe to the thesis of Bruyat and Julien (2001), and to the processual approach of Fayolle (2007b), according to which theventure creation process is declined into three stages: release,entrepreneur's commitment and survival - development of the new project. The authors propose a cognitive approach allowing the enumeration of specific competencies required in each step of the entrepreneurial process.

Nissim Otmazgin, Anime in the US: The Entrepreneurial Dimensions of Globalized Culture, 87 Pac. Aff. 53 (2014).

Abstract (by author): In the past two decades, the enthusiastic global reception of Japanese cultural exports has drawn wide academic attention. In the case of Japanese animation (“anime”), its penetration into the United States, the world’s biggest media market, has been described as owing greatly to the crucial role of fans as cultural agents, the deterritorializing effects of globalization, the domestication and heavy editing of anime to suit local tastes, and being part of the wider global flow of Japanese pop culture and “soft power.” Drawing on interviews with Japanese and American key personnel in the anime industry, field research and market surveys, this paper focuses on the organizational aspect of the anime market in the United States since the mid-1990s, with particular attention to the role of entrepreneurs, who are imperative for bridging organizational rigidities and cultural differences in global markets. The key argument presented is that entrepreneurship is a central feature in the process of transnational penetration, distribution, reproduction and consumption of cultural commodities and genres, which produce ever more complex and disjunctive economic, cultural and political orders.

Adnan Ozyilmaz, The Effects of Demographic Characteristics on Entrepreneurial Intention in the Pre-venture Stage of Entrepreneurship, 14 Int'l J. Entrepren. & Small Bus. 406 (2011).

Abstract (from journal): Individuals’ entrepreneurial intentions are the foundations of new-organisation creation. Using the demographic-characteristics approach of entrepreneurship as its basis, this study examines the effects of selected demographic characteristics on pre-venture entrepreneurial intentions. This study analysed the responses of 698 undergraduate university students to a questionnaire to test its hypotheses. Statistical analyses found significant and positive relationships between both being a male and having an entrepreneur-parent role-model and having entrepreneurial intentions for business-administration students, but the entrepreneur-parent role-model was the sole significant and positive predictor of engineering students’ entrepreneurial intentions. Age was not a significant predictor of entrepreneurial intentions for undergraduate students. This study’s findings do not support birth-order argument. Implications and future research directions are also discussed.

Desiree F. Pacheco et al., The Co-Evolution of Institutional Entrepreneurship: A Tale of Two Theories (Batten Institute, Research Paper No. 2010 P1, 2010),available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1615032.

Abstract (from authors): This article provides a review and analysis of institutional entrepreneurship research with a focus on the emergence of this literature within two largely divergent streams: sociology-based institutional theory and economics-based institutional economics. The authors completed a review of 141 articles from these concurrent, but unlinked research streams to understand how their integration might contribute to the further understanding of institutional entrepreneurship. Each stream is reviewed on their respective approaches to the following topics: the nature of the institutional entrepreneur, the types of institutions addressed, the determinants of institutional entrepreneurship, the mechanisms used in the process, and the empirical focus of each stream. The article recommends greater assimilation of the two streams and discusses specific opportunities for conceptual integration. Finally, the article offers an agenda for incorporating entrepreneurship research into the study of institutional entrepreneurship. Findings from this review suggest that while institutional economics focuses mostly on the antecedents and outcomes of institutional entrepreneurship, the institutional theory perspective is more concerned with the process and mechanisms that drive such change. The authors also suggest that entrepreneurship theory can greatly advance our understanding of institutional entrepreneurship by informing the process through which opportunities for institutional change are discovered and created, as well as by conceptualizing underdeveloped institutions as a source for such opportunities. Most importantly, integrating the unique perspectives and domains of institutional theory, institutional economics, and entrepreneurship research in the study of institutional entrepreneurship provides substantial opportunity for expanding our understanding of the concept and its implications.  

Eleni Papaoikonomou et al., Entrepreneurship in the Context of Crisis: Identifying Barriers and Proposing Strategies, 18 Int'l Advances in Econ. Research 111 (2012).

Abstract (from journal): The current crisis is considered by many economists to be the severest recession in post-war economic history and it has had great impact on the Spanish economy. Within this context, the entrepreneurs’ role is crucial, given that entrepreneurial activity is a main driver of economic recovery and growth. This study intends to explore entrepreneurs’ perceptions and experiences with regards to the barriers for recovery and identify possible strategies to respond to the crisis. In total, eight focus groups were conducted and a representative sample of 301 entrepreneurs was selected.

Roberto Parente & Rosangela Feola, Entrepreneurial Intent and Entrepreneurial Commitment of Young Researchers, 12 Int’l J. of Tech. Mgmt. & Sustainable Dev. 155 (2013).

Abstract (adapted from authors): The creation of an academic spin-off represents one of the ways to implement the technology transfer process from university to firms. Although in Italy the preference for this form of valorization of scientific research has increased in recent years, the gap compared with the main EU countries remains wide. The main problem related to the development of academic spin-offs concerns the concept of entrepreneurial commitment, here understood as the complex of decisions and actions which bind the would-be entrepreneur to the fate of his venture. Entrepreneurial commitment should be seen as a different concept from entrepreneurial intention which could be considered as the will of a person to start a new business. Entrepreneurial intention has a role in the make-up of entrepreneurial commitment but other elements also have to be considered. Eventually, such elements may impede the formation of the entrepreneurial commitment of the would-be entrepreneur or at least weaken it. The article investigates the elements that qualify entrepreneurial intention and those which play a predominant role in developing the same into entrepreneurial commitment.

Simon C. Parker, Intrapreneurship or Entrepreneurship? 26 J. Bus.Venturing 19 (2011).

Abstract (from author): The author explores the factors that determine whether new business opportunities are exploited by starting a new venture for an employer (‘nascent intrapreneurship’) or independently (‘nascent entrepreneurship’). Analysis of a nationally representative sample of American adults gathered in 2005–06 uncovers systematic differences between the drivers of nascent entrepreneurship and nascent intrapreneurship. Nascent entrepreneurs tend to leverage their general human capital and social ties to organize ventures which sell directly to customers, whereas intrapreneurs disproportionately commercialize unique new opportunities which sell to other businesses. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Holger Patzelt, Strategic Entrepreneurship at Universities: Academic Entrepreneurs' Assessment of Policy Programs, 33(1) Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 319 (January 1, 2009).

Abstract (from publisher): This article draws on goal-setting theory to analyze how and why entrepreneurs perceive the usefulness of policy programs aimed at facilitating the development of academic ventures. Using a conjoint study and data on 3,136 assessments nested within 98 academic entrepreneurs, the rerseachers find that access to finance offered by a policy program is central and enhances the entrepreneurs' perceived benefits of other policy measures such as providing access to nonfinancial resources (networks, business knowledge) and reducing administrative burdens, but diminishes the perceived benefits of offering tax incentives for new ventures. The results extend the literature on academic entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs' assessments of government policy measures.

Damon J. Phillips & Jesper B. Sorensen, Competence and Commitment: Employer Size and Entrepreneurial Endurance, 20 Ind. & Corp. Change 1277 (2011), also available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1959758.

Abstract (from authors): The authors develop and test a theory of entrepreneurial endurance, or the likelihood that an entrepreneur will continue an entrepreneurial venture from one period to the next. Conceptualizing entrepreneurial endurance as a function of the entrepreneur's competence in and commitment to the entrepreneurial role, the authors argue that both factors should be shaped by the entrepreneur's prior employment. They focus on the effects of employer size on the prospective entrepreneur, and argue that employer size has a negative effect on both entrepreneurial competence and commitment. This implies that entrepreneurs from small firms should have superior economic performance and, for a given level of performance, be less likely to exit entrepreneurship. The authors find support for these predictions in analyses of entrepreneurs in a unique data set characterizing the Danish labor market.

Barbara J. Phipps et al., Principles of Economics Without the Prince of Denmark, 43 J. Econ. Educ. 58 (2012)

Abstract (from authors): In most introductory textbooks on principles of economics, discussion of the theory or practice of entrepreneurship is almost entirely absent. This omission is striking, given the important role in economic growth that economists assign to the entrepreneur. While there are plausible explanations for this omission, new research suggests the beginnings of a body of formal microtheory on innovative entrepreneurship. In this article, the authors first review treatment of the entrepreneur in the latest editions of three commonly used introductory economics textbooks, each of which includes a substantive discussion of entrepreneurship. Second, the authors present brief overviews of new microtheories of entrepreneurship (Parker 2009; Spulber 2009; and Baumol 2010), each of which has potential to serve as inspiration and to provide a framework for inclusion of entrepreneurship in introductory microtheory.

John Pisapia & Keith Feit, Entrepreneurial Leadership at a Crossroads (2015), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2671949.

Abstract (adapted from authors): There is confusion in the extant literature over the connection between entrepreneurial leadership and leadership. Is entrepreneurial leadership a theory or a style? Is its focus on setting direction, gaining commitment, and achieving results? Or, is it focused on influencing others or recognizing and exploiting opportunities?

The paper is structured as follows. First, the authors situate entrepreneurial leadership within the extant theoretical leadership literature. Then the authors present the definitional confusion within the literature and describe three paths: advantage seeking, opportunity seeking, and strategic. The authors argue that what is missing in the extant literature is a research agenda focused on the entrepreneur as a leader who seeks wealth creation by seeing, recognizing, and exploiting opportunities without regard to the resources available, and creating an entrepreneurial culture in their team or organization. The authors close with research questions that would support the development of this theory.

Marta Podemska-Mikluch & Richard E. Wagner, Entangled Political Economy and the Two Faces of Entrepreneurship (GMU Working Paper in Economics, No. 12-26, 2012), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2084487.

 Abstract (by authors): This paper contrasts two forms of entrepreneurship -- genuine and parasitical -- within a framework of entangled political economy. In 1911, Joseph Schumpeter described entrepreneurship as the locus of leadership within a capitalist economy. At that time state participation in economic activity was dramatically less than it is now. Entrepreneurship was largely free of political entanglement. After a century of governmental expansion, however, entrepreneurship has increasingly become entangled in parasitical political relationships. Where genuine entrepreneurship is a feature of a constitution of liberty, parasitical entrepreneurship is a feature of a constitution of control. 

Ksenia Podoynitsyna et al., The Role of Mixed Emotions in the Risk Perception of Novice and Serial Entrepreneurs, 36 Entrepren. Theory & Prac. 115 (2012).

Abstract (adapted from journal): This study examines the role of mixed emotions in the risk perception of entrepreneurs, an important determinant of entrepreneurial decision making. The authors extend the literature on mixed emotions by applying the cognitive appraisal tendency approach and contrasting it with ambivalence stemming from the valence-based approach. The authors test their hypotheses on a data set of 253 entrepreneurs from the United States. They show that mixed and conflicting emotions are an important predictor of the risk perception of entrepreneurs. At the same time, they find that emotional reactions of entrepreneurs on strategic issues change substantially as they found more ventures and become habitual entrepreneurs.

J. Pollack et al., Self-Efficacy in the Face of Threats to Entrepreneurial Success: Mind-Sets Matter, 34 Basic & Applied Soc. Psychol. 287 (2012).

Abstract (adapted from authors): Results from two studies, extending implicit theories to entrepreneurship, demonstrated that incremental theorists (entrepreneurial ability is malleable), compared to entity theorists (entrepreneurial ability is fixed), reported more self-efficacy after threats to personal ability and business success. In Study 1, women induced to hold an incremental theory reported more self-efficacy regarding future entrepreneurial endeavors, compared to women induced to hold an entity theory, after being told entrepreneurial ability is primarily driven by masculine traits (threat condition). Results from Study 2, a sample of business owners, replicated this incremental buffering effect after threats to both men and women's entrepreneurial success (i.e., poor business performance). The authors discuss results in terms of how mind-sets matter for entrepreneurial endeavors, especially in the face of challenges.

Keerti Prajapati & Saswata Narayan Biswas, Effect of Entrepreneur Network and Entrepreneur Self-efficacy on Subjective Performance: A Study of Handicraft and Handloom Cluster, 20 J. Entrepren. 227 (2011).

Abstract (from authors): The article presents results of a study on the impact of entrepreneurial demographic characteristics (age, experience and education), entrepreneurial network structure (size, density and centrality), entrepreneurial network types (competitive and supportive) and entrepreneurial self-efficacy on subjective performance. The sample consisted of 148 micro and small enterprises in a textile handicraft and handloom cluster in Kutch, Gujarat, India. Regression analysis results suggested that size, density, centrality, entrepreneur self-efficacy, competitive network and supportive network predicted subjective performance significantly and together they accounted for about 56 per cent of the variance in the dependent variable. However, the unique contribution of the demographic variables and supportive network was not significant. Results are explained in light of the theory of social capital and the entrepreneur cognitive theory. The research has implications for policymaking, research and entrepreneurship training and education.

Tammi C. Redd, Entrepreneurial Climate: The Role of Online Social Networks in the Entrepreneurial Ecosystem, (George Washington University (GWU) International Council for Small Business (ICSB) Proceedings of 6th Annual Global Entrepreneurship Research and Policy Conference, 2015), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2700803.

Abstract (adapted from authors): There is a consensus in the literature that some geographic areas have a more positive entrepreneurial climate than others. Entrepreneurial climate encompasses the entrepreneur’s entire functional environment including opportunities, skills creation, and social support. The expansion of social support sources and networks beyond the local community is key to creating successful business ventures. The environment in which the entrepreneur lives and works creates a social context which often times will determine the number and types of relationships formed and in turn influences the types of opportunities recognized for exploitation and business creation.

Networking ability is the ability to develop contacts and relationships for the purpose of exchanging information or resources in an effort to further a career or business venture. This particular construct allows us to examine the entrepreneur’s capability in creating network ties, which may be difficult in geographically isolated areas where entrepreneurial climate may be perceived as negative. The expansion of social support sources and networks is key to creating successful business ventures. The purpose of this study is to examine whether the possession of online network ties is used as a substitute for entrepreneurial climate.

 

Paul D. Reynolds, Entrepreneurship in Developing Economies: The Bottom Billions and Business Creation, 8 Foundations and Trends in Entrepren. 141 (2012), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2137727.

 Abstract (by author): Over 100 million of the 1.8 billion mid-life adults living on less than $15 a day are attempting to create new firms. Another 110 million are managing new ventures. This is almost half of the global total of 450 million individuals involved with 350 million start-ups and new ventures. For the poor, business creation provides more social and personal benefits than illegal and dangerous migration, criminal endeavors, or terrorism. Almost all of the business creation by the bottom billions occurs in developing countries, half are in Asia. The ventures initiated by the bottom billion are a significant minority of all firms expecting growth, exports, an impact on their markets, and in high tech sectors. Assessments based on multi-level modeling suggest that young adults, whether they are rich or poor, in countries with access to informal financing and an emphasis on traditional, rather than secular-rational, and self-expressive values are more likely to identify business opportunities and feel confident about their capacity to implement a new firm. Such entrepreneurial readiness is, in turn, associated with more business creation. Compared to the strong associations of informal institutions with business creation, formal institutions have very modest and idiosyncratic relationships. Expansion of access to secondary education and early stage financing may be the most effective routes to more firm creation among the bottom billion. 

Christian Roessler & P. Koellinger, Firm Formation with Complementarities: The Role of the Entrepreneur (Tinbergen Institute, Discussion Paper 09-003/3, 2011),available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1920643.

Abstract (from authors): The authors model entrepreneurship and the emergence of firms as a result of simultaneous bidding for labor services among heterogeneous agents. Unique to their approach is that occupational choices, job matching and organizational forms are determined simultaneously, so that the opportunity costs of entrepreneurs are accounted for. They find that individuals who are relatively unmanageable become entrepreneurs; entrepreneurs compete against each other and create value by building efficient organizations and offering potentially very well paid jobs for others; and entry of an additional entrepreneur typically reduces some individual wages, but always raises the average wage and depresses the average incomes of incumbent entrepreneurs - strictly so if the new firm partially imitates existing organizations. These results shed a new light on the role of entrepreneurs in the economy and may be applied to explain low returns to self-employment.

Banjo Roxas, Effects of Entrepreneurial Knowledge on Entrepreneurial Intentions: A Longitudinal Study of Selected South-East Asian Business Students, 27 J. Educ. & Work 432 (2014).

Abstract (by author): Drawing on the theory of planned behavior, this study examines the direct and indirect effects of knowledge gained from a formal entrepreneurship education program on an individual’s entrepreneurial intentions (EI). It tracks the changes in students’ entrepreneurial knowledge (EK), perceptions of desirability of, and self-efficacy in, engaging in entrepreneurship and the impact of those changes on students’ EI upon completion of an entrepreneurship course. It uses longitudinal survey data of 245 business students in a Philippine university. Using cross-lagged panel method and partial-least squares-based structural equation modeling, the study builds and tests the measurement and structural models to examine the hypothesized interactions of EK, perceived desirability of, self-efficacy towards entrepreneurship, and EI. The findings underscore the importance of developing knowledge to nurture students’ self-confidence and attitudinal propensity to engage in entrepreneurship.

Martin Ruef, Howard E. Aldrich & Nancy M. Carter,The Structure of Founding Teams: Homophily, Strong Ties, and Isolation among U.S. Entrepreneurs,68(2) Am. Soc. Rev.195-222 (2003).

Petrik Runst, The Entrepreneurial Class and Its Ideology (2012), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2030355.

Abstract (from author): The literature suggests individuals who favor a market economy over a more government led model are more likely to become self-employed. This paper addresses two additional questions: First, using three large scale data sets, the empirical results tentatively suggest that the direction of causality runs both ways. Once an individual is self-employed he/she also change their ideology over time. Second, large scale surveys might not give an adequate representation of ideological opinion as their questions are necessarily narrow. Nine in-depth interviews with entrepreneurs, and seventeen non-entrepreneurs in East Germany, however, confirm the broader relationship between attitudes toward the market economy.

William A. Sahlman, How to Write A Great Business Plan, Harv. Bus. Rev. (July-Aug. 1997).

Abstract (from publisher):  Every seasoned investor knows that detailed financial projections for a new company are an act of imagination. Nevertheless, most business plans pour far too much ink on the numbers--and far too little on the information that really matters. Why? William Sahlman suggests that a great business plan is one that focuses on a series of questions. These questions relate to the four factors critical to the success of every new venture: the people, the opportunity, the context, and the possibilities for both risk and reward. The questions about people revolve around three issues: What do they know? Whom do they know? and How well are they known? As for opportunity, the plan should focus on two questions: Is the market for the venture's product or service large or rapidly growing (or preferably both)? and Is the industry structurally attractive? Then, in addition to demonstrating an understanding of the context in which their venture will operate, entrepreneurs should make clear how they will respond when that context inevitably changes. Finally, the plan should look unflinchingly at the risks the new venture faces, giving would-be backers a realistic idea of what magnitude of reward they can expect and when they can expect it. A great business plan is not easy to compose, Sahlman acknowledges, largely because most entrepreneurs are wild-eyed optimists. But one that asks the right questions is a powerful tool. A better deal, not to mention a better shot at success, awaits entrepreneurs who use it.

Walid Said, Entrepreneurship Training in Tunisia: Assessment and International Issues (2012), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2060286.

Abstract (from author): One of the tools most used by economic communities and governmental systems to develop new business formation is entrepreneurship training. The authors try through this paper to assess efforts conducted in a Mediterranean country (Tunisia) in the field of entrepreneurship education and training. The paper’s methodology was to analyze different programs and curricula conducted in Tunisian higher education institutions, a multilevel survey also was used through different graduate levels to discuss student behaviors and representations. Results showed that generally people ignore specialty specificities which affected efficiency of different educational mechanisms to enhance entrepreneurial culture and the development of human capital. In the other side, and conscientious of the internationalization of new business creation, international entrepreneurship is in the most cases ignored in educational systems. Efforts are yet focused in personal characteristics of the successful entrepreneur and the economic nature of firms without serious and automatic seeks to specify new trends of business creation and specially participate to ensure openness to the international context in the field of entrepreneurship. More attention shall be made to restructure entrepreneurship training programs and curricula and a specific focus must be in favor of international entrepreneurship. This educational orientation can afford more chances to potential entrepreneurs and more issues to economic policies especially toward unemployment.

Sally Sambrook et al., A Biographical Approach to Researching Leadership and Entrepreneurship Development Processes in a Small Business Context (Bangor Business School, Research Paper No. 11/004, 2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1952667.

Abstract (adapted from authors): This paper proposes a strategy for the research of leadership and entrepreneurial learning and development processes in a small business context. It is relevant to wide ranging local, national and European policies to develop SME entrepreneurial leadership practice and SME growth. Leadership is probably the most important factor to business success (Analoui and Karami 2003). Yet, as Rae and Carswell (2000) point out, a greater understanding is needed of the nature and the process of entrepreneurship in terms of how people learn to start and grow businesses, especially those that become high performing businesses. The authors argue that the life story approach is an industrious and valid method of researching entrepreneurial learning. The study forms part of a larger research agenda that will track the longer term effects of the intervention. A sample of 17 biographical interviews will form part of the initial study but this target will remain fluid. Despite its scope, limited contributions to the literature on biography emerge from this field. This paper will explore the feasibility of biographical research in the context of LEAD Wales by critically reflecting on this work in progress and the potential contribution of biography as a means of exploring the temporal nature of the lived experience, and an appreciation in the self and representations of the self as an entrepreneur and leader.

Saras D. Satasvathy & Sankaran Venkataraman, Entrepreneurship as Method: Open Questions for an Entrepreneurial Future, 35 Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 113 (2011).

Abstract (from author): In this essay, the authors outline the provocative argument that in the realm of human affairs there exists an “entrepreneurial method” analogous to the scientific method spelled out by Francis Bacon and others with regard to the natural realm. They then suggest a series of open questions that we believe will help future scholars spell out the contents of such a method and ways in which it can be put to work in the design and achievement of socio-economic ends. At least one normative implication of accepting the argument would be to teach entrepreneurship not only to entrepreneurs but to everyone, as a necessary and useful skill and an important way of reasoning about the world.

Frederic E. Sautet, Local and Systemic Entrepreneurship: Solving the Puzzle of Entrepreneurship and Economic Development, 37 Entrepren. Theory & Prac. 387 (2013), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2234307.

 Abstract (by author): Most economists agree that entrepreneurship has a positive effect on growth in developed countries. However, no evidence of this has been found in the case of developing countries. Rather, in many low‐income countries, one can observe productive entrepreneurship but little corresponding development. This is the puzzle of entrepreneurship and development. To solve this puzzle, we propose to look at the notions of local and systemic entrepreneurship. Using recent research on the mechanisms of social cooperation, as well as network and firm theories, we offer an explanation of why entrepreneurship has a limited impact on growth in developing countries.

Sonali Shah et al., Who are User Entrepreneurs? Findings on Innovation, Founder Characteristics, and Firm Characteristics (The Kauffman Firm Survey, 2012), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2018517.

Abstract (adapted from authors): Little is known about the paths individuals traverse prior to founding firms and the ramifications of these different paths on entrepreneurial outcomes. The authors investigate one particular path and its effects: user entrepreneurship. User entrepreneurship describes entrepreneurship by individuals who create innovative products or services because they need them for their own use and subsequently found firms to commercialize their innovations. A small number of industry-level studies suggest that many important innovative products and services are first introduced to the commercial marketplace by user entrepreneurs. Detailed data support this idea and describe user entrepreneurs and their firms. Specifically, the authors distinguish between three types of user-founded firms and contrast these firms with both the full sample of firms and firms engaged in R&D activities with respect to founder demographics, firm characteristics, and patterns of revenue growth, job creation, R&D investment, and intellectual property creation. In addition, the authors provide the first documentation of the prevalence of user entrepreneurship in the United States: 10.7 percent of all start-ups and 46.6 percent of innovative start-ups founded in the United States that survive to age five are founded by users.

Dean A. Shepherd, Multilivel Entrepreneurship Research: Opportunities for Studying Entrepreneurial Decision Making, 37 J. Management 412 (2011).

Abstract: Entrepreneurship is a domain of research that can be investigated from different disciplines, functions, and contexts. As a result, there are ample opportunities for multilevel research. In this article, the author acknowledges a foundation of multilevel research on decision making in the entrepreneurial context and explores future research opportunities to build on it. This exploration is organized conceptually as a hierarchy of levels below and above that of the individual, and the author uses conjoint analysis as a methodological framework to keep these ideas anchored in what is empirically possible. Specifically, this article explores (a) multilevel research on decisions to explain how a sample of individuals makes a decision on an entrepreneurial task, (b) additional possibilities for cross-level research that explains variance in decision policies based on individual differences, and (c) research opportunities that bridge the levels of the decision, the individuals, and the contexts in which they are embedded. The hope is that this article stimulates multilevel research on entrepreneurial decision making and other multilevel and cross-level issues in the entrepreneurship domain.

Dean Shepherd, Are We Comparing Apples with Apples or Apples with Oranges? Appropriateness of Knowledge Accumulation Across Growth Studies, 33(1) Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 105 (January 1, 2009).

Abstract (from publisher):  Although knowledge accumulation is dependent upon relationships among constructs being robust across different measurement and sampling decisions, scholars have not sufficiently established such robustness for the construct of firm growth. Focusing on this construct, the researchers conduct analyses on all Swedish firms incorporated during the 1994 to 1998 period (68,830 firms) and track their growth (or demise) over their first 6 years of existence. Although the researchers typically find low shared variance between different growth measures, there is variability such that some measures demonstrate high and/or moderate concurrent validity. These findings have implications for how we delineate the boundaries of firm growth research and accumulate knowledge.

Kelly Smith & Martin Beasley, Graduate Entrepreneurs: Intentions, Barriers and Solutions, 53 Education + Training 722 (2011).

Abstract (from authors): This paper aims to investigate the factors that influenced seven graduates in the creative and digital industries to start their own businesses in Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK – an area with lack of employing establishments and locally registered businesses. Design/methodology/approach – Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews identified the constraining and enabling factors graduates may encounter when attempting to start a business, and explored the impact of support provided. Findings – Perceived constraining factors were: lack of general business knowledge, contradictory advisory support from external agencies, lack of sector-specific mentors, lack of finance, and experience of familial entrepreneurship. Perceived enabling factors were: co-mentoring from business partners, course content, financial gain, creativity and innovative ideas, control and risk taking, and the overarching package of support. Linkages between internal and external support could be improved. Research limitations/implications – The study provided insights into constraints and enablers to self-employment for a small cohort of recent graduates looking to start-up in the creative and digital industries. Further studies are required to explore the suggested effect of the "creative identity", and of sector-specific family entrepreneurial background. Practical implications – The support provided by universities can facilitate the transition from early stage ideas to actual graduate business start-up. Issues such as provision of specialist advice and links with external parallel and follow-on support need to be considered. Originality/value – University start-up units provide an important contribution to the development of graduate entrepreneurs and their role in the growth of national and global economy. Suggestions for improvements in performance, such as closer links with external business development agencies and support providers, are discussed.

So Young Sohn & Ann Sung Lee, Bayesian Network Analysis for the Dynamic Prediction of Early Stage Entrepreneurial Activity Index, 40 Expert Sys. with Applications 4003 (2013).

Abstract (adapted from authors): Entrepreneurship plays a critical role for the development and well-being of society. Illustration of its dynamic relationship with entrepreneurial attitudes and aspirations can provide a guideline for the cause of such activities. However, a time-lagged causal relationship among these concepts has not yet been established. In this study, the authors examine a dynamic relationship among early stage entrepreneurial attitudes, activities, and aspirations using Bayesian network (BN) analysis. In addition, they propose an early stage entrepreneurial activity index that can predict the percentage of both nascent entrepreneur and new business owner using the variables related to entrepreneurial attitudes of the previous year. This index, in turn, can be used to predict various aspects of entrepreneurial aspiration of the following year. The proposed index turns out to have very high prediction accuracy and is expected to provide effective policies to boost future entrepreneurial activity and aspiration.

Hans Eibe Sørensen, The Successful Entrepreneur: The Role of Market-Oriented Business Development (2012), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2128550.

David J. Storey, Optimism and Chance: The Elephants in the Entrepreneurship Room, 29 Int'l Small Bus. J. 303 (2011).

Abstract (from author): This article argues that existing theories of new and small firms fail to capture the temporal diversity of such enterprises. Most are ‘one-way bets’ because they provide an explanation only for growing firms. To address this, this article combines the role of chance with the optimism of the business owner into optimism and chance (OC) theory. This provides an insight into why, for example, very few new or small firms grow continuously and why, when compared to Europe, individuals in the USA who initially failed in business, ultimately became successful.

Virgil Henry Storr & Arielle John, The Determinants of Entrepreneurial Alertness and the Characteristics of Successful Entrepreneurs (Annual Proceedings of the Wealth and Well-Being of Nations, Vol. 2, Emily Chamlee-Wright, ed., 2011),available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1738825.

Abstract (from author): Israel Kirzner has made important contributions to our understanding of the critical role that entrepreneurship plays in markets and has considerable influence in economics, public policy and entrepreneurship studies. For Kirzner, understanding the role of the entrepreneur is essential to understanding how errors get corrected in the market and understanding the role of alertness is essential to understanding how it is that entrepreneurs come to identify these errors. As he explains, alert individuals discover profit opportunities and, thus, driving the market process toward equilibrium. Although Kirzner’s work on entrepreneurship has been widely celebrated, it has been criticized on several fronts. Specifically, he has been criticized for abstracting from the psychological characteristics of real world entrepreneurs and the determinants of alertness. These criticisms, we contend, are unfair and misunderstand Kirzner’s project. Moreover, we argue, rather than closing off inquiry, his theory of entrepreneurship makes a fruitful analysis of the psychological characteristics of entrepreneurs and the determinants of alertness possible.

Andreas Strobl et al., Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Intentions: Assessing Gender Specific Differences, 15 Int'l J. Entrepren. & Small Bus. 452 (2012).

Abstract (from journal): The attitude towards entrepreneurship can strongly influence the probability of individuals to become self-employed. The mindset or attitudes of an individual to move into self-employment make up the foundation for future entrepreneurial activities. Former studies indicate differences between male and female perceptions or intentions to become entrepreneurs. This paper attempts to assess women's entrepreneurial intentions of as well as their attitudes towards being independent and comparing them to the male counterparts'. A survey among university students was carried out revealing that male students show more positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship and much more concrete entrepreneurial intentions.

Sanna Sundqvist et al., Kirznerian and Schumpeterian Entrepreneurial-Oriented Behavior in Turbulent Export Markets, 29 Int'l Marketing Rev. 203 (2012).

Abstract (adapted from journal): The purpose of this paper is to shed light on the mechanisms by which entrepreneurial-oriented behaviours (EOB) enhance international business performance. In so doing, the authors demonstrate that different dimensions of EOB may need to be emphasized or dampened, depending on the environmental conditions facing the firm. It is found that Kirznerian manifestations of EOB have stronger positive relationships with export profits when markets are relatively stable, whereas Schumpeterian manifestations of EOB have stronger positive relationships with export profits when markets are more dynamic. The study has implications for researchers studying multidimensional strategic orientations. The approach adopted is novel, in that instead of adopting a fully aggregated or fully disaggregated approach to the study of a strategic orientation, the authors use a theoretically derived partial aggregation approach. As a result, EOBs are grouped into two kinds, and the latter are shown to behave differently with respect to relationships with performance outcomes. The study limitations include single source data and its cross-sectional design.

Tyszka Tadeusz et al., Motivation, Self-Efficacy, and Risk Attitudes among Entrepreneurs during Transition to a Market Economy, 40 J. Socio-Economics 124 (2011).

Abstract: This article studies which qualities of entrepreneurs (motivation, self-efficacy and attitude toward risk), where more important to groups of opportunity-driven and necessity-driven entrepreneurs.

Atul Teckchandani, Do Membership Associations Affect Entrepreneurship? The Effect of Type, Composition, and Engagement, 43 Nonprofit & Voluntary Sector Q. 84S (2014).

 Abstract (by authors): The purpose of this study is to examine how entrepreneurs in creative industries perceive the needs and preferences of their prospective customers, and how this perception changes over time. It deals with a substantial problem facing creative industries: how do entrepreneurs in this field overcome their tendencies to impose their artistic visions without taking into account their customers’ expectations? The main research questions are as follows: (1) How do new venture entrepreneurs perceive their customers just before they start operating their businesses and just after they enter the market? (2) In what way does market experience affect the way customers are perceived? (3) Do the entrepreneurs’ earlier market experience and their business education foster customer orientation development? The authors answer these questions based on research conducted among young startup entrepreneurs taking part in the Entrepreneurship in Creative Industries project in Warsaw (Poland) in 2012. The analysis is based on three sources of data: application forms submitted by entrepreneurs during selection of the project participants, evaluation forms completed during the course of the project by the selected entrepreneurs, and in-depth interviews with the project participants. The qualitative analysis was conducted with the use of Atlas. This study is an attempt to provide useful insights into the barriers to development of creative industries, which stem from misperceptions of customer needs, and to discuss implications for the successful implementation of new ventures’ customer orientation.

 

Toca Torres & Claudia Eugenia, Considerations to the Entrepreneurship Formation: Exploring New Domains and Possibilities (Estudios Gerenciales Universidad ICESI, Vol 26, No. 117, 2010), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1782904.

Abstract: Entrepreneurship has long been exclusively associated with the business sphere, but despite efforts on the part of educational institutions, development centers, and government agencies, it has had a remarkably poor development on other dimensions such as on the public and social spheres. This article proposes a reflection regarding the importance of entrepreneurship for an efficient and competitive corporate development based on different concepts adopted during past decades for the purpose of stressing its transdisciplinary nature. Then it goes on with a review of experiences to explore new possibilities for its application. Lastly, it raises awareness for people to have an open mindset to new dimensions of life in a society.

Paul Tracy & Nelson Phillips, Entrepreneurship in Emerging Markets, 51 Mgmt. Int’l Rev. 23 (2011). 

Abstract: This article examines the uncertainty inherent in emerging markets for both the costs and the benefits it provides to entrepreneurs.

Chien-Chi Tseng, Linking Entrepreneurial Infrastructures and New Business Development: Entrepreneurship Development in Taiwan, 21 J. Entrepren. 117 (2012).

Abstract (from author): This research explores the relationship between entrepreneurial infrastructure and new business development in Taiwan. The study develops a concept of entrepreneurial infrastructure and its nine criteria that determine whether new businesses will participate in these networks. Then, it reports on the results of exploratory, in-depth interviews among 40 entrepreneurs in Taiwan. A model was developed based on the interview data. The research results indicate that entrepreneurial infrastructures that are designed to facilitate new business development may reflect biases toward opportunity-motivated rather than necessity-motivated entrepreneurs. The findings generate a suggestion that a different set of policies and entrepreneurial infrastructures are important to support the necessary entrepreneurship development. The research of new business development adds considerable information to the understanding of the relationship between entrepreneurial development, and the decision to participate in entrepreneurial infrastructures.

Deniz Ucbasaran et al., The Nature of Entrepreneurial Experience, Business Failure and Comparative Optimism, 25 J. Bus. Venturing 541 (2010). 

Abstract: This paper studies the optimism levels of entrepreneurs who have failed at a venture versus those who have not. Optimism levels can affect an entrepreneur’s willingness to start another business.

Elco van Burg & A. Georges L. Romme, Creating the Future Together: Toward a Framework for Research Synthesis in Entrepreneurship, 38 Entrepreneurship Theory and Prac. 369 (2014).

Abstract (by authors): To develop a body of evidence-based knowledge on entrepreneurship, findings and contributions from the positivist, narrative, and design research traditions in this area need to be combined. Therefore, a framework for research synthesis in terms of social mechanisms, contextual conditions, and outcome patterns is developed in this paper. Subsequently, a synthesis of the existing body of research findings on entrepreneurial opportunities serves to illustrate how this framework can be applied and provides results that inform entrepreneurial action. Finally, the authors discuss how this synthetic approach serves to systematically connect the fragmented landscape of entrepreneurship research, and thus gradually build a cumulative and evidence-based body of knowledge on entrepreneurship.

Andrew H. Van de Ven, The Development of an Infrastructure for Entrepreneurship, 8 J. Bus. Venturing 211-230 (1993).

Elena Vasilchenko & Sussie Morrish, The Role of Entrepreneurial Networks in the Exploration and Exploitation of Internationalization Opportunities by Information and Communication Technology Firms, J. Int'l Marketing, Winter 2011, at 88.

Abstract (from journal): This article investigates the role of entrepreneurial social and business networks in the internationalization of high-technology firms. The authors present case study evidence from born-global information and communication technology firms that shows that established and newly formed social networks can be instrumental in exploring internationalization opportunities. These social networks potentially lead to collaborative cooperation and form part of an entrepreneur's broader business network that facilitates exploitation of internationalization opportunities culminated by successful entry into foreign markets. The study incorporates contemporary literature and offers an internationalization opportunity exploration–exploitation model emanating from the entrepreneur's network configuration. In doing so, it takes a process approach and provides much needed qualitative evidence in network research.

Jostein Vik & Gerard McElwee, Diversification and the Entrepreneurial Motivations of Farmers in Norway, 49 J. Small Bus. Mgmt. 390 (2011).

Abstract (from authors): A series of significant pressures but also new opportunities face the agricultural sector in developed economies. Farm diversification is presented as a political solution and a viable business strategy and highlights the entrepreneurial side of farmers. This paper is a unique attempt to address the question of motivation for farm diversification using Norwegian data. The results demonstrate that social motivations are as important as economic motivations, that is, there are substantial differences in which motivations underpin different types of diversification. This suggests, first, that the literature could gain from engaging more in the variation of motivational drivers than general trends, and second, that farmers need different forms of support to develop their entrepreneurial skills. With a data set derived from a large survey (N=1607) of Norwegian farm holdings, the authors use a multinomial logistic regression model to analyze how six farm diversification categories are differently influenced by different types of motivations and other background variables.

Balagopal Vissa, Agency in Action: Entrepreneurs' Networking Style and Initiation of Economic Exchange, 23 Org. Sci. 492 (2012).

Abstract (adapted from journal): This multimethod study investigates the effects of entrepreneurs' interpersonal networking style on the initiation of interorganizational exchange ties. The author uses inductive theorizing to make a distinction between interpersonal networking actions aimed at adding new contacts (network-broadening actions) versus managing existing contacts (network-deepening actions). The author reason that because networking actions alter the cost-benefit calculus of using referrals, the extent to which entrepreneurs rely on referrals when searching for new exchange partners should vary with their networking actions. The author then propose that entrepreneurs are likely to add fewer new exchange partners when they rely more on referrals to search. The empirical analysis employs a longitudinal design using data coded from the business cards of new contacts formed over a two-month period by a panel of Indian entrepreneurs operating business-to-business ventures. This study makes a theoretical contribution by identifying decision makers' networking style as a distinct mechanism shaping partner selection for their organization. Specifically, the study shows entrepreneurs using more network-deepening actions initiate fewer new economic exchanges, due (in part) to their increased reliance on referral-based search, whereas entrepreneurs using more network-broadening actions initiate more new economic exchanges due (in part) to their decreased reliance on referral-based search.

Balagopal Vissa, A Matching Theory of Entrepreneurs' Tie Formation Intentions and Initiation of Economic Exchange, 54 Acad. Mgmt. J. 137 (2011).

Abstract (from author): A study was conducted to investigate entrepreneurs' intentions to add new ties to their personal networks. It is argued that task complementarity and social similarity affect entrepreneurs' intentions of interpersonal tie formation. Findings show that valuable connections which are often pursued by entrepreneurs may be only partially accurate.

Jue Wang, R&D Activities in Start-up Firms: What Can We Learn from Founding Resources? 26 Tech. Analysis & Strategic Mgmt. 517 (2014).

Abstract (from publisher): Research and development is critical in promoting innovation and firm development. While many studies have been discussing how firms’ R&D behavior is affected by the internal factors and external factors, little has been done to link it to firms’ founding conditions. Using resource-based view theory, this study suggests the firms’ R&D activities in their later stages are partly determined by firms’ starting resource bundle. The author proposes that the financing structure, entrepreneurs’ education background and intellectual property of the new firms will affect their R&D behavior. The study examines the performance of a random sample of firms established in 2004 using data from the Kauffman Firm Survey. The result shows a mixing impact of firms’ starting resources. The founders’ education and the ownership of intellectual property have a positive and long-lasting impact, while firms’ financial capital matters mostly in the short term. The study also finds subsequent resource development is highly reliant on the initial resource bundle.

Isabell M. Welpe et al., Emotions and Opportunities: The Interplay of Opportunity Evaluation, Fear, Joy, and Anger as Antecedent of Entrepreneurial Exploitation, 36 Entrepren. Theory & Prac. 69 (2012).

Abstract (from journal): This research examines the interplay of opportunity evaluation and emotions as determinants of entrepreneurial exploitation using affect-as-information theory and the affective processing principle as conceptual bases. Three central assumptions are confirmed across two studies. The first is that the effects of opportunity characteristics on exploitation are mediated by evaluation. The second is that emotions influence exploitation decisions in addition to evaluation. Fear reduces exploitation, whereas joy and anger increase it. The third is that fear, joy, and anger influence evaluation's effect on exploitation with higher levels of fear reducing and higher levels of joy and anger increasing the positive impact of evaluation on exploitation.

Karl Wennberg, Entrepreneurial Exit (2011), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=1825113.

Abstract: Much research has been devoted to look for characteristics that drive individuals towards engaging in entrepreneurship. Less attention has been given to the question of what makes people persist in or exit from entrepreneurship. Recent years have seen an increasing focus on entrepreneurial exit in a number specialized workshops and conferences tracks, new research projects, and special issues in international journals. This chapter provides stocktaking on past research on exit, outlining the progress that research has done, together with the key problems in defining and investigating entrepreneurial exit. Conceptually, the chapter focuses on level of analysis and different definitions of exit. Empirically, the chapter describes the streams of research suggesting that exit is either determined by the environment or the entrepreneur, together with the stream of research highlighting the connection between entry and exit as path-dependent processes. The chapter concludes with highlighting a number of unsolved issues and interesting pathways for future research on exit.

Johan Wiklund, The Effectiveness of Alliances and Acquisitions: The Role of Resource Combination Activities, 33(1) Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 193 (January 1, 2009).

Abstract (from publisher):  Resource complementarity increases the potential value of alliances and acquisitions, but the extent to which the value potential of an alliance or an acquisition becomes realized depends on the ability of the firm to discover and conduct productive resource combinations. Using a sample of 319 small firms, the researchers separate domestic from international alliances and acquisitions and show that alliances and acquisitions bring limited benefits to firms unless deliberate effort is devoted to resource combination. These findings help resolve conflicts in the resource-based literature concerning the benefits of alliances and acquisitions.

Johan Wiklund, Portfolio Entrepreneurship: Habitual and Novice Founders, New Entry, and Mode of Organizing, 32(4) Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 701 (July 1, 2008).

Abstract (from publisher):  With the purpose of advancing the understanding of portfolio entrepreneurship, the researchers separate the act of entrepreneurship (new entry) from its mode or organizing (internal vs. independent organization). Analyzing a cohort of 2,253 novice and habitual business founders, the researchers find that portfolio entrepreneurship is a common phenomenon and that the majority of portfolio entrepreneurs use the internal mode of organizing. Whether or not business founders subsequently pursue portfolio entrepreneurship is explained by their human capital (education and start-up experience) and social capital (business networks and links with government support agencies). Further, novice entrepreneurs are more likely to organize portfolio entrepreneurship within their existing firms while habitual entrepreneurs more often organize subsequent acts of portfolio entrepreneurship by creating another new independent entity

Muhammadsuhaimee Yanya et al., Does Higher Entrepreneurial Activity Correlate with Higher Level of Growth? Evidence from Thailand (Society of Interdisciplinary Business Research (SIBR) Conference on Interdisciplinary Business Research, 2011), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1869352.

Abstract (from authors): Schumpeter (1934) argues that entrepreneurship plays a vital role in economic growth and development of a country. Entrepreneurs, characterised by their attitudes to be imaginative, innovative, authoritative, and risk-taking, drive innovation and technological change in the economy, which are crucial in economic growth and development. In this regard, the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) Report 2007 records that Thailand has a remarkably high entrepreneurial activity, even if compared to Japan or the United States. Paradoxically, this high entrepreneurial activity does not translate into superior economic growth. In fact, Thailand’s economic growth does not really show a notable difference from her neighbouring countries in the Southeast Asia, such as Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Cambodia and Vietnam. This raises an interesting question that needs careful scrutiny: does entrepreneurial activity really make an impact on economic growth of Thailand? While there are many empirical studies carried out to investigate the determinants of growth in Thailand, an examination on the impact of entrepreneurship is still very much lacking. Thus, there is a need to fill up this gap and perhaps provide an insight and shed some light on this issue. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to study the impact of entrepreneurship on economic growth of Thailand. Towards this ends, the analysis on the impact of entrepreneurship in economic growth is carried out by performing regression analysis. However, unlike most previous growth studies on Thailand that used aggregate data, this study uses data that are disaggregated into 76 provinces in Thailand, obtained from official government documents. The regression model is based on growth accounting framework, and is estimated by three different methods – pooled OLS, random effects and fixed effects. Based on the first two methods, the results suggest that entrepreneurship, measured as the number of new business establishment, is significant to explain variation in Thailand’s economic growth. However, the result of the Hausman test necessitates a re-estimation of the model by the fixed effects method. Using the fixed effects methods, the results indicate that entrepreneurship is insignificant. The authors take this result as evidence that entrepreneurship plays little or no role in economic growth of Thailand.

Jiarong Yu & Shouming Chen, Gender Moderates Firms’ Innovation Performance and Entrepreneurs’ Self-Efficacy and Risk Propensity, 44 Soc. Behav. & Personality 679 (2016).

 

Andrew L. Zacharakis, G. Page West III, Dean A. Shepherd, Teresa Nelson & Gaylen N. Chandler, Entrepreneurship Research in Emergence: Past Trends and Future Directions, 29 J. Mgmt. 285-308 (2003).

Abstract (from publisher):  This article evaluates the emergent academic field of entrepreneurship to better understand its progress and potential. We apply boundary and exchange concepts to examine 97 entrepreneurship articles published in leading management journals from 1985 to 1999. Some evidence was found of an upward trend in the number of published entrepreneurship articles, although the percentage of entrepreneurship articles remains low. The highly permeable boundaries of entrepreneurship facilitate intellectual exchange with other management areas but sometimes discourage the development of entrepreneurship theory and hinder legitimacy. We argue that focusing entrepreneurship research at the intersection of the constructs of individuals, opportunities, modes of organizing, and the environment will define the field and enhance legitimacy. Decision theory, start-up factors of production, information processing and network theory, and temporal dynamics are put forward for entrepreneurship scholars to explore important research questions in these intersections.

Andrew L. Zacharakis & Dean A. Shepherd, A New Venture’s Cognitive Legitimacy: An Assessment by Customers, J. Small Bus. Mgmt. (2003).

Abstract (from authors):  Many legitimacy problems associated with new ventures appear to stem from a lack of customers’ knowledge and understanding of the new venture. Of particular concern to entrepreneurs is cognitive legitimacy. The findings of this article suggest that customers appear to have a preference for greater rather than lesser information about a new venture’s product, organization, and management (holding the content of that information constant). Furthermore, customers appear to use a contingent decision policy. For an independent startup business that is perceived as new on all three dimensions, priority should be given to building customer knowledge in the product, followed by building customer knowledge in the organization. Less attention should be given to building the customer’s knowledge in the management team, although such actions still will build cognitive legitimacy. 

To visit Publisher’s website, click here.

Shaker A. Zahra, et al., Emerging Issues in Corporate Entrepreneurship, J. of Mgmt. (2003).

Abstract (from publisher):  Research on corporate entrepreneurship (CE) has grown rapidly over the past decade. In this article, we identify four major issues scholars can pursue to further our understanding about CE. The issues we explore include various forms of CE (e.g., sustained regeneration, domain redefinition) and their implications for organizational learning; the role of leadership and social exchange in the CE process; and, key research opportunities relevant to CE in an international context. To address the latter issue, we propose a typology that separates content from process-related studies and new ventures vs. established companies. We close with a reassessment of the outcomes in CE research, which becomes particularly salient with the increasing importance of social, human, and intellectual capital in creating competitive advantages and wealth in today’s knowledge economy. Throughout the article, we use the organizational learning theory as a means of integrating our discussion and highlighting the potential contributions of CE to knowledge creation and effective exploitation.

Shaker A. Zahra, et al., Leveraging Technological Resources for Competitive Advantage: The Case of Software New Ventures, 1 J. Int’l Entrepreneurship 163-186 (2003).

Shaker A. Zahra, Donald O. Neubaum & Galal M. El-Hagrassey, Competitive Analysis and New Venture Performance: The Moderating Effect of Strategic Uncertainty and Venture Origin, 27(1) Entrepreneurship: Theory & Prac. 1 (2002).

Abstract (from publisher): Effective competitive analysis (CA) is important for success in today's marketplace. CA may be particularly important to new ventures that may lack experience in their industries and knowledge of their rivals. Using survey data from 228 new ventures, this study concludes that the formality, comprehensiveness, and user orientation of CA activities are positively associated with new venture performance. Strategic uncertainty and venture origin also significantly moderate the relationship between CA and new venture performance.

Shaker A. Zahra & Mike Wright, Entrepreneurship's Next Act, 25 Acad. Mgmt. Persp. 67 (2011).

Abstract (from authors): Entrepreneurship has become firmly established as a legitimate scholarly discipline. For entrepreneurship to influence managerial practice and public policy, however, we believe there needs to be a substantive shift in the focus, content, and methods of entrepreneurship research. The authors discuss ways this shift could occur, highlighting the need to recognize the multiple dimensions of entrepreneurial activities—and the importance of examining the heterogeneous aspects of context and factoring them into future theory building and testing efforts—and delineating the microfoundations of entrepreneurship. They also discuss how to strengthen the link between entrepreneurship research and public policy.

Shaker A. Zahra & Satish Nambisan, Entrepreneurship and Strategic Thinking in Business Ecosystems, 55 Bus. Horizons 219 (2012).

Abstract (from journal): Success in business ecosystems that include well-established companies and new ventures requires collaboration and competition, a task that demands strategic thinking to leverage a firm's resources and capabilities. Strategic thinking and the entrepreneurial activities in an ecosystem influence one another in a cycle that perpetuates and even sparks innovation. These interactions vary significantly across four types of business ecosystems—Orchestra, Creative Bazaar, Jam Central, and MOD Station—and determine the success and failures of new ventures and established companies. The nature and effect of the dynamic interactions in a business ecosystem can have profound implications for organizational success.

Stelios H. Zanakis et al., Nascent Entrepreneurs and the Transition to Entrepreneurship: Why Do People Start New Businesses?, 17 J. Dev. Entrepren. 1250001-1 (2012).

Abstract (from authors): What makes nascent entrepreneurs get their businesses up and running? The authors answer this by examining in a broad and unifying way: motivation and cognition, knowledge and experience and social support. They apply extensive multivariate analyses to a sample of 338 nascent entrepreneurs from the PSED database. Interestingly, most of our long-term (4½-year) model predictions of startup transition based on early antecedents are more accurate than the short-term ones - a practical strength of these models. Findings indicate that experienced, persistent, confident individuals, motivated mostly by non-financial outcomes, perceiving support from their social contacts and institutional environment, are likely to make the transition to a successful business.

Guifang Zhang et al., An Empirical Study on Impact of College Carve-Out Education on Entrepreneur Intention (2012), available athttp://ssrn.com/abstract=2034168.

Abstract (from authors): Carve-out education is becoming increasingly important in current days since the business set up by college students produce a significant effect on the economic growth. Entrepreneur intention, part of carve-out education, is receiving more and more attention. Based on educational systems over the world and the datum of Chinese college students, the article studies the impact of the college carve-out education on students’ entrepreneur intention with the structure equation modeling (SEM). The research shows that carve-out education can enhance entrepreneur intention indirectly by updating students’ knowledge, cultivating their entrepreneurial abilities and reinforcing their determination. The colleges and other educational organizations should also provide plenty of training projects and encourage students to participate in company operation. In addition, some successful entrepreneurs should be invited to give lectures in colleges.

Jing Zhang et al., Direct Ties, Prior Knowledge and Entrepreneurial Resource Acquisitions in China and Singapore, 29 Int'l Small Bus. J. 170 (2011), also available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=2045067.

Abstract (adapted from authors): The entrepreneurship literature suggests that network ties are useful in mitigating the problem of information asymmetry faced by entrepreneurs when acquiring resources at the early stage of venture creation. The authors introduce prior knowledge of resource owners as an inverse measure of information asymmetry and investigate the contingent effect of prior knowledge and tie strength between entrepreneurs and resource owners on the likelihood of entrepreneurial resource acquisition. Using data from 378 high-tech ventures located in Beijing, China and Singapore, the analysis shows that strong ties are more important than weak ties, in entrepreneurs’ resource acquisition and this importance grows when resource owners have less prior knowledge to offset problems of information asymmetry. Similar network effects are found in both China and Singapore. The insignificant country difference suggests that the social network culture of the start-up community is universal.

Online Resources

Ted Baker & Timothy G. Pollock, Making the Marriage Work: The Benefits of Strategy's Takeover of Entrepreneurship for Strategic Organization, 5 Strategic Org. 297-312 (2007). 
www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/t/x/txp14/pdfs/so07%20-%20Making%20the%20Marriage%20Work.pdf

Joseph J. Cordes, Henry R. Hertzfeld & Nicholas S. Vonortas, A Survey of High Technology Firms, U.S. Small Bus. Admin. (1999). 
www.sbaonline.sba.gov/advo/research/rs189tot.pdf

Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, The Entrepreneur Next Door, Characteristics of Individuals Starting Companies in America, An Executive Summary of the Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics, Kauffman Found. (2002). 
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1262320

Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, Entrepreneur Resource Center,http://www.entrepreneurship.org/en/Resource-Center.aspx.

Gaebler.com, Resources for Entrepreneurs.
www.gaebler.com 

Garage Technology Ventures, Resources
http://www.garage.com/resources/index.shtml

William M. Gentry & R. Glenn Hubbard, Entrepreneurship and Household Saving, 4 Advances in Econ. Analysis & Pol'y 1, Art. 8 (2004).
http://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/ghubbard/Articles%20for%20Web%20Site/Entrepreneurship%20and%20Household%20Saving.pdf

Abstract:  Using data from the 1983 and 1989 Federal Reserve Board Surveys of Consumer Finances, we quantify three findings about entrepreneurial saving decisions and their role in household wealth accumulation. First, entrepreneurial households own a substantial share of household wealth and income, and this share increases throughout the wealth distribution and the income distribution. Second, the portfolios of entrepreneurial households, even wealthy ones, are very undiversified, with the bulk of assets held within active businesses. Third, wealth-income ratios and saving rates are higher for entrepreneurial households even after controlling for age and other demographic variables. Taken together, these findings suggest that studies of household saving decisions in general and of the savings decisions of wealthy or high-income households in particular have paid insufficient attention to the role of entrepreneurial decisions and their role in wealth accumulation.

Peter Gwynne, Open Innovation's Promise and Perils, 50 Res. Tech. Mgmt. (2007). 
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_6714/is_6_50/ai_n29387192/?tag=content;col1

Leader to Leader Institute, Knowledge Center.
http://www.pfdf.org/knowledgecenter/index.html

Andrea Lipparini & Maurizio Sobrero, The Glue and the Pieces: Entrepreneurship and Innovation in Small-Firm Networks, 9 J. Bus. Venturing 125-140 (1994). 
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VDH-45P0CS1-2R/2/af4a47df23ef02446ee9fc4ec23d8642

National Commission on Entrepreneurship, Embracing Innovation: Entrepreneurship and American Economic Growth, Nat’l Comm’n on Entrepreneurship (2003).
www.energizingentrepreneurs.org/content/chapter_2/supporting_materials/1_000178.pdf

National Commission on Entrepreneurship, High-Growth Companies Mapping America’s Entrepreneurial Landscape, Nat’l Comm’n on Entrepreneurship (2001). 
http://www.wabio.com/econ_dev_reports/national_commission2001.pdf

Panel Study of Entrepreneurial Dynamics (PSED), Documentation 
http://www.psed.isr.umich.edu/psed/documentation

Joseph Szarka, Networking and Small Firms, 8 Int’l J. of Small Bus. 10-22 (1990).
http://isb.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/8/2/10

Ingrid Verheul, Sander Wennekers, David B. Audretsch & Roy Thurik, An Eclectic Theory of Entrepreneurship, Tinbergen Inst. (2001). 
www.tinbergen.nl/discussionpapers/01030.pdf